State 1
Shallow LImestone Oak-Hickory Forest

This state consists of three phases: mixed oak-hickory forest, oak-maple-hickory forest, and early successional eastern red cedar woodland. Common species for more mature forested sites are chinkapin oak (Quercus muehlenbergii Engelm.), white oak (Quercus alba L.), and Shumard’s oak (Quercus shumardii Buckley), and northern red oak (Quercus rubra L.). Black oak (Quercus velutina Lam.) may be present. Common hickory species are pignut (Carya glabra (Mill.) Sweet), mockernut (Carya alba (L.)Nutt.) and shagbark (Carya ovata (Mill.)K.Koch). Sugar maple (Acer saccharum Marsh.), white ash (Fraxinus americana L.), blue ash (Fraxinus quadrangulata Michx.), American elm (Ulmus americana) and slippery elm (Ulmus rubra) were also found on these sites. The understory community, in the absence of invasive non-native vegetation, consists of a moderately diverse but not dense understory of native woodland plants, leaf litter, and usually surface rock. A defined shrub layer was not present, and tree seedling and samplings were common.

Community 1.1
Shallow Limestone Oak-Hickory Forest

Figure 7. KYplotRivercliffs

Figure 8. KYdorman_rockoutcrop

Figure 9. KYplotH

Figure 10. KYplotKleber

Indicator species for this site included chinkapin oak (Quercus muehlenbergii Engelm.) and Shumard’s oak (Quercus shumardii Buckley). Shumard's oak is common throughout the Bluegrass region but virtually absent from the Appalachian section of Kentucky and infrequent in other parts of the state. White oak (Quercus alba L.) can also be found frequently on these sites. Other oaks present on this ecological site, but to a much lesser degree, are Northern red oak (Quercus rubra L.), and black oak (Quercus velutina Lam.). Monitoring plots in both the Inner and Outer Bluegrass physiographic regions displayed subtle differences in species preferences. Scarlet oak was not found and black oak was rarely found in monitoring plots within the Inner Bluegrass region. Northern red oak was found in both regions but only on the more protected sites. Hickories found on sites included pignut (Carya glabra), mockernut (Carya alba) and shagbark (Carya ovata). Pignut was common in monitoring plots in the Outer Bluegrass region and was less common in the Inner Bluegrass plots. Mockernut hickory grows throughout Kentucky and is commonly found on dry slopes/uplands. This species was found in multiple plots. With light, mobile, wind-blown seeds and a high tolerance to shade, maples and ashes were also predominate species. Sugar maple (Acer saccharum Marsh.), white ash (Fraxinus americana L.), and blue ash (Fraxinus quadrangulata Michx.) were recorded on all sites visited. Frequent in the Bluegrass region of Kentucky, the blue ash is usually found on limestone rock outcrops or shallow, rocky limestone soils. It is easily identified by distinctive, winged branches. Although greatly reduced in number from the turn of the century, this species can be found on the limestone cliffs along the Kentucky River and other limestone hillsides throughout the Bluegrass. American elm (Ulmus americana) and slippery elm (Ulmus rubra) were also found on these sites. The understory community for this phase included a light to moderate layer of native woodland plants and substantial leaf litter. Surface rock may be present. A well-defined shrub layer is not usually present. Successful regeneration of multiple tree species, including oak and hickories, was occurring in the understory.

Forest overstory. The overstory composition for this phase consists of chinkapin oak, Shumards oak, white oak, sugar maple, white ash, blue ash, shagbark hickory, mockernut hickory, American elm and/or slippery elm. Black oak, northern red oak, scarlet, and bitternut hickory were infrequent on these sites.

Forest understory. The typical understory composition for these sites are leaf litter, surface rock, and a light herbaceous layer of native Kentucky woodland plants such as snakeroot, bignonia (crossvine) agrimony, sedges, violets, ferns, spleenworts, grape,and Virginia creeper. Sites were protected from grazing, logging, and heavy recreational uses, so the understory was especially beautiful in the early spring when native wildflowers covered the forest floor. A well-defined shrub layer was not present. Understory seedling and/or sapling trees included sugar maple, elms, ashes, oaks, and hickories. Cedar seedlings scattered on site. Ohio buckeye, eastern red cedar, and slippery elm were not uncommon.

Community 1.2
Shallow Limestone Oak-Maple Forest

Figure 11. chinkapin-maple-elm community on Fairmount mapunit

This phase is characterized by hardwoods overtopping the eastern red cedar of phase 1.3. Tree species include chinkapin oak, Shumard oak, white oak, sugar maple, white ash, blue ash, American elm, slippery elm, and hickories. Quick growing and shade-tolerant, sugar maple and ash are usually an important component of this phase. Removal of the hardwood trees will result in a transition back to phase 1.3 and a re-dominance of eastern red cedar. Once the hardwoods begin to completely overtop the cedars, shade mortality reduces cedar numbers allowing hardwood dominance and phase 1.3 will transition to phase 1.2. Phase 1.2 will transition with time phase 1.1 as the shallow, droughty, rocky limestone soils found on these specific sites favor oak-hickory dominance. Drought years will reduce the number of maples allowing mast species to favorably compete in the long-term.

Forest overstory. Overstory composition for this community consisted mainly of chinkapin oak, sugar maple, and Shumard oak. Some sites had white oak, mockernut hickory, shagbark hickory, and American elm. Sugar maple is a major component in this phase. Shade tolerant, adaptable, and quick growing, this species is very competitive on these ecological sites in non-drought years or in more protected sites. This phase had a higher sugar maple canopy cover, basal area, and regeneration rate than the other State 1 phases.

Forest understory. The understory composition for these sites includes leaf litter, usually some surface rock, and a diverse but not dense herbaceous layer of native Kentucky woodland plants such as snakeroot, bignonia (crossvine) agrimony, ticktrefoils, sedges, violets, ferns, spleenworts, frost or summer grape, and Virginia creeper. A well-defined shrub layer was not present on these sites. Understory seedling and sapling trees included sugar maple, elms, ashes, oaks, and hickories. Cedar seedlings were usually on site. Ohio buckeye, eastern red cedar, and slippery elm were not uncommon.

Community 1.3
Shallow Limestone Cedar Woodland

Figure 12. Eastern red cedar grove -old fescue pasture-Fairmount soils

Figure 13. Fairmount hillside with previously cleared sites overtaken by eastern red cedar

Figure 14. Hardwoods overtopping cedars on Cynthiana soil

Rocky limestone soils are typified by successional communities of dense eastern red cedar. This community is the natural next step from the transitional field state (state 4). This phase also occurs where timber harvests have removed the overstory hardwoods or other disturbances (fire, wind damage, etc.) have occurred. Eastern red cedar prefers dry rocky hillsides and thrives in open fields, limestone glades, and limestone outcrops. Waiting for sunlight and release, multiple species of hardwood seedling and sapling are usually in the understory including sugar maple, white ash, white oak, chinkapin oak, red oaks, American elm, slippery elm, and hickories. Understory composition of oaks and hickories were dependent on available seed sources. This is an important consideration for landowners wishing to transition from either pasture or transitional field states. Long-term pasture may not have the desired oak and hickory seed sources on site and oak-hickory plantings may be necessary. Light, wind-blown seeds from sugar maple, elm, hackberry, and ash will naturally be present on most sites. Timber stand improvement activities may be recommended to favor regeneration of oak-hickory.

Forest overstory. This successional community is typified by an overstory composition of dense eastern red cedar. Cedars can thrive in the shallow, often droughty, soils included in this ESD and are the primary pioneer tree on abandoned farmland.

Forest understory. Due to shading, the forest understory composition of the shallow limestone cedar woodlands less diverse than phases 1.1 or 1.2. Phase 1.3 were often abandoned cool-season grass pastures, so fescue or other planted pasture grasses were still a major component of the understory for these communities.

Pathway 1.1A
Community 1.1 to 1.2

Shallow Limestone Oak-Hickory Forest

Shallow Limestone Oak-Maple Forest

Selective harvest of the larger oak and hickory trees will shift this phase to 1.2. With the removal of mast species and the additional sunlight, sugar maple often increases. In some locations, sugar maple seedling and sapling can be dense.

Pathway 1.1B
Community 1.1 to 1.3

Shallow Limestone Oak-Hickory Forest

Shallow Limestone Cedar Woodland

Disturbances such as logging will result in phase 1.1 moving to phase 1.3. Removal of hardwoods will open the canopy allowing the eastern red cedar to regenerate. Post disturbance management options include allowing regeneration throughout natural succession, direct planting of oak and hickory species and control of eastern red cedar, bush honeysuckle and invasive vegetation control, and forest and wildlife management planning based on landowner objectives.

Pathway 1.2A
Community 1.2 to 1.1

Shallow Limestone Oak-Maple Forest

Shallow Limestone Oak-Hickory Forest

This natural transition occurs during prolonged dry periods. Oak and hickory species typical for these sites are better adapted to surviving periods of drought compared to sugar maple. Unlike the moderately deep or deep soil sites which were visibly transitioning to sugar maple, the shallow, rocky soil sites described within this ecological site were still dominated by drought-resistant oaks and hickories on the majority of sites. These sites are at risk due to the invasion of bush honeysuckle (see transition T1.B).

Pathway 1.3A
Community 1.3 to 1.2

Shallow Limestone Cedar Woodland

Shallow Limestone Oak-Maple Forest

This phase consists of oaks, hickories, maples, elms, and ashes that have reached a height to overtop the eastern red cedars. The young trees have escaped the shaded environment of the red cedar canopy. Oak and hickory species numbers will depend on local seed sources while the light, windblown seeds of maples, ashes, and elms were often dense on monitored sites as these species are better adapted to growing under the dense shade of cedar. Eastern redbud (Cercis canadensis L.) was frequently found in these mid-successional communities.

State 2
Planted pasture

This state varies greatly in species composition depending on management and specific site characteristics such as slope, rock content, and soil depth which can range between 10 to 20 inches. The pasture sites on Fairmount and Cynthiana mapunits were on lower slope sites. Pastures were predominately fescue (Festuca arundinacea). These shallow soil sites lie over limestone or limestone and calcareous shale parent material. They are droughty with moderately slow to slow permeability on slopes. Therefore, a good plant cover is needed at all times to reduce runoff and protect against soil erosion. Grazing should be regulated on sites to maintain a minimum plant height with periods of rest to allow adequate regrowth and avoid erosion.

Community 2.1
Managed pasture

Figure 15. Fairmount, min slope, mowed annually, mged graze

This community phase is characterized by a high level of management that includes some combination of seeding, mowing, fertilizing, controlled grazing, and weed control. Species and production levels varied greatly on the sites visited and were dependent on landowner objectives and management. Sites visited were mowed annually or bi-annually, fertilized periodically, usually had slopes of less than 15 percent, had little or no visible rock outcrops, and were predominately seeded in tall fescue. Managed sites were only found on a few lower slope areas where mechanical management was feasible. Production on these sites varied depending on specific site conditions, type of grass seeded, the level of use, and the type of management. Estimated pasture production levels for specific soil map units is available in the USDA-NRCS county soil surveys.

Community 2.2
Minimally managed pasture

Figure 16. min managed pasture grazed

Figure 17. Minimally managed pasture-ungrazed but mowed

Sites in this phase were under low-levels of management usually due in part to the steep slopes, high rock content, and shallow soils. Many of the minimally managed pasture sites had encroaching eastern red cedar, locust, multiflora rose, greenbriers, ironweed, and other non-grass species. Sites were typically characterized by slopes of 15 percent or greater, visible surface rock, and soils 12 to 20 inches in depth. These characteristics made the pastures difficult to manage mechanically. Most sites showed signs of overgrazing. Undesirable pasture species, including noxious weeds, were often present and soil erosion was commonly visible. As expected, the overgrazed sites had a lower percent grass cover, and increased percentage in bare ground, and a wider variety and greater number of invasive weed species. Many pasture sites mapped as Fairmount and Cynthiana were investigated for this project and found to actually be complexes of shallow and moderately deep soils. Twenty pasture sites mapped as Cynthiana were visited, but after site-specific testing (depth probing), twelve of these sites were discovered to actually be a mixture of shallow and moderately deep soils, such as a Cynthiana-Faywood complex. Twenty Fairmount pasture sites were also visited. Sixteen of these twenty sites were actually a complex of shallow and moderately deep soils. In-depth species monitoring was conducted on sites testing as shallow (20" soil depth or less). Graminoids included tall fescue (Schedonorus arundinaceus (Schreb.) Dumort., nom. cons.), Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis L.), orchardgrass (Dactylis glomerata L.) timothy (Phleum pratense L.), smooth brome (Bromus inermis Leyss.), quackgrass (Elymus repens (L.) Gould), perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.), reed Canarygrass (Phalaris arundinacea L.), foxtail barley (Hordeum jubatum L.), barnyardgrass (Echinochloa crus-galli (L.) P. Beauv) and yellow foxtail (Setaria pumila). Common velvet grass (Holcus lanatus L.) was present on two sites. Seeded forb/herb species on sites often included red clover (Trifolium pratense L.), white clover (Trifolium repens L.), and alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.). The most common tree species on these sites was eastern red cedar (Juniperus virginiana L.). Other species found in monitored areas included greenbriers (Smilax L.), blackberries (Rubus L.), giant ironweed (Vernonia gigantea (Walter) Trel.), bull thistle (Cirsium vulgare (Savi) Ten.), Canada thistle (Cirsium arvense (L.) Scop.), spiny sowthistle (Sonchus asper (L.) Hill.), spiny amaranth (Amaranthus spinosus L.), buttercup spp. (Ranunculus L.), spiny cocklebur (Xanthium spinosum L.), rough cocklebur (Santhium strumarium L.), multiflora rose (Rosa multiflora), poison hemlock (Conium maculatum L.), common or lanceleaf ragweed (Ambrosia bidentata Michx.), common yarrow (Achillea millefolium L.), American pokeweed (Phytolacca americana L.), goldenrod spp. (Solidago L.), common dandelion (Taraxacum officinale F.H. Wigg.), Canadian horseweed (Conyza canadensis (L.) Cronquist), curly dock (Rumex crispus L.), Queen Anne’s lace (Daucus carota L.), jimsonweed (Datura stramonium L.), black medick (Medicago lupulina L.), Canadian horsenettle (Solanum carolinense L.), Amur (bush) honeysuckle (Lonicera maackii (Rupr.) Herder), black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia L.), mulberry (Morus L.), osage orange (Maclura pomifera (Raf.) C.K.), winged sumac (Rhus copallinum L.), common hackberry (Celtis occidentalis L.), black cherry (Prunus serotina Ehrh.), and honey locust (Gleditsia triacanthos L.).

Pathway 2.1A
Community 2.1 to 2.2

Managed pasture

Minimally managed pasture

With a reduction or absence of management, these site will transition naturally to a minimally managed pasture. The vegetative component of the community will shift from a high percentage of grass to a community more native and invasive forbs and herbs. Tree seedlings/ and saplings, along with vines, will also increase in number and diversity. Future management and recommended conservation practices will depend on landowner goals.

Pathway 2.2A
Community 2.2 to 2.1

Minimally managed pasture

Managed pasture

Sites under this project are typically not highly productive pastures due to the shallow, rocky soils; however, some of the lower sloping sites investigated were being utilized as pastureland. On these sites, landowners can make improvements to increase production and protect soil resources. Potential management inputs may include controlled grazing, brush removal, development of a grazing management plan, weed control, and installation of fencing and/or water facilities.

State 3
Honeysuckle Invaded State

This community is characterized by a midstory and understory dominated by Amur honeysuckle (Lonicera maackii (Rupr.) Herder). Japanese honeysuckle (Lonicera japonica Thunb.), another invasive plant, is often on this sites as well. Honeysuckle varieties were introduced to this country in the 1700s and 1800s as ornamentals; however, their growth form, adaptively, hardiness, and aggressiveness has resulted in dense thickets in forested areas and abandoned fields throughout the Bluegrass region. Often this community has a mixed hardwood overstory that includes oaks, which predate the honeysuckle. A dense midstory of shade- tolerant species such as sugar maple, hackberry, elm, and white ash, is usually present. Juvenile oak and hickory trees were scarce on monitored sites due to the shading effect of the honeysuckle. In areas opened up by felled trees due to wind damage, timber harvest, or disturbance, honeysuckle was especially thick completely shading the forest floor. Honeysuckle is by far the dominant species in the midstory and understory of these communities. A limited number of sugar maple, hackberry, and white ash seedling were found within monitored plots, but oak-hickory regeneration was often completely absent.

Community 3.1
Honeysuckle Invaded Woodland

Figure 18. Honeysuckle woodland 1

Figure 19. honeysuckle woodland 2

Figure 20. honeysuckle woodland 3

Chinkapin oak, sugar maple, and elms were the common overstory tree species on these sites. Sugar maple, white ash, and hackberry were dominant tree species in the midstory and understory. Some hillsides included white oak and hickories but these species were usually a minor component. Honeysuckle was the single dominant species in the lower midstory and understory effectively outcompeting and shading-out native understory plants. The density and dominance of bush honeysuckle on these sites is sufficient to greatly reduce, or in severe cases, prohibit oak-hickory reproduction. The native herbaceous layer in woodlands is also negatively impacted. The low percentage of tree and forb cover is the direct result of the high percentage of shrub (honeysuckle) cover. On many monitored sites, oaks and hickories were absent. Forbs and grasses present were generally non-natives such as tall fescue (Schedonorus arundinaceus (Schreb. Dumort.), garlic mustard (Alliaria petiolata (M. Bieb.) Cavara & Grande), Japanese stiltgrass (Microstegium vimineum (Trin.) A. Camus.), and wintercreeper (Euonymus fortunei (Turcz.)Hand.-Maz). Shade-tolerant tree species such as sugar maple, white ash and hackberry were regenerating in monitored plots but limited in number.

Forest overstory. Overstory composition for these sites consists of oaks and elms that pre-date the honeysuckle invasion along with sugar maple, hackberry, white ash and in few cases, hickory species.

Forest understory. Understory composition consists of honeysuckle species (Amur and Japanese honeysuckle). Oak and hickory regeneration is minimal to non-existent on these sites. Sugar maple regeneration is occuring but minimal. There is no typical forest community herbaceous layer due to the dense mid-story shading from the honeysuckle.

State 4
Transitional Field

This state is the result of pastureland being abandoned and eastern red cedar encroaching into the field. Black locust, honey locust, elms, oaks, and hackberry seedling and saplings were common depending on nearby seed sources. A variety of pasture grasses, weeds, and native forbs were found on these sites. Typically, this state is the natural transition between a managed pasture and an eastern red cedar woodland. Not yet woodland, but no longer a pasture, this successional state is characterized by diversity in plant height, density, and vegetation type (trees, shrubs, grasses, forbs, vines, etc.) thereby providing good wildlife habitat for many native species. These sites were often found on wildlife management areas in Kentucky that were previously a working farm but are now being allowed to naturally transition to a cedar woodland.

Community 4.1
Transitional Shallow Limestone Field

Figure 21. transitional field

This phase is the natural transition of a pastureland moving toward phase 1.3. Planted grasses, typically tall fescue (or a mix of planted grasses), still occupies a significant component of the plant community. Other grass species such as timothy, ryegrass, orchardgrass, Kentucky bluegrass, Johnsongrass, and bromegrass were often present. Eastern red cedar, black locust, honey locust, hackberry, elm, and oak seedling are usually present. Oak, hickory and walnut trees were on site if a nearby seed sources were available. Briars, berries, thistles, ironweed, and an array of herbs were typical for these sites. This community phase is beneficial to many game species and was often found on wildlife management areas and on private property of landowners interested in hunting or wildlife viewing. This phase is characterized by planted pasture grasses, an array of forbs and vines (both native and introduced), seedling hardwood trees, and young eastern red cedars. Eastern red cedar will eventually dominate moving this community to phase 1.3.

Transition T1A
State 1 to 2

Substantial management inputs including tree removal and seeding of pasture grasses would move state 1 to state 2. This would be feasible on few sites included under this ESD, due to the steep slopes, surface rock, droughty shallow soils, potential for soil erosion and limited production rates.

Transition T1B
State 1 to 3

The introduction of Amur or bush honeysuckle into oak-hickory woodlands has the potential to completely alter the future community of these sites. Once established, the density and dominance of honeysuckle is sufficient to prohibit oak and hickory regeneration and can entirely replace the native understory community. Introduced from Asia, these species are shade tolerant and form dense thickets in open woods and along forest edges. Honeysuckle plants are fast growing with seeds that germinate quickly in high percentages and are easily transmitted by wildlife and human activity such as road building, recreational uses, livestock grazing, and ground disturbance. Honeysuckle can aggressively spread via root sprouting and compared to many native plants, has longer flowering and seed production periods (Rathfon and Lowe, 2012). Once established, control of honeysuckle requires repeated treatments over multiple years. The seed bank under mature shrubs will remain viable for 2 to 6 years, requiring long-term control efforts. This species is severely impacting the natural composition of woodlands throughout central Kentucky.

Transition T1B
State 1 to 3

The introduction of Amur or bush honeysuckle into oak-hickory woodlands has the potential to completely alter the future community of these sites. Once established the density and dominance of honeysuckle is sufficient to prohibit oak and hickory regeneration and can entirely replace the native understory community. Introduced from Asia, these species are shade tolerant and form dense thickets in open woods and along forest edges. Honeysuckle plants are fast growing with seeds that germinate quickly in high percentages and are easily transmitted by wildlife and human activity such as road building, recreational uses, livestock grazing, and ground disturbance. Honeysuckle can aggressively spread via root sprouting and compared to many native plants, has longer flowering and seed production periods (Rathfon and Lowe, 2012). Once established, control of honeysuckle requires repeated treatments over multiple years. The seed bank under mature shrubs will remain viable for 2 to 6 years, requiring long-term control efforts. This species is fundamentally changing the composition of woodlands throughout central Kentucky.

Transition T2A
State 2 to 4

This is a natural transition from a pasture site to a transitional field. The planted pasture is being encroached upon by eastern red cedar, locusts, briars, other grasses, native forbs, and weeds.

Restoration pathway R3A
State 3 to 1

The management inputs necessary to control bush honeysuckle are long-term and intensive. Control measures may include a variety of herbicide treatments (basal bark spray, foliar spray, stump injections, etc.), manual cutting or pulling of plants, mechanical brush removal, fire management, and biological controls. Hand pulling of seedlings is time consuming and tedious, but should be conducted when soils are moist as all of the root must be removed or re-sprouting will occur. Digging or grubbing out larger plants must be done with care, as bare, open soil will result in rapid re-invasion or re-sprouting. Extensive research has been conducted on the use of herbicides to control bush honeysuckle. Applying herbicide to cut stumps is one common treatment method for larger plants. Cutting should be avoided during the winter as it “prunes” the plants and encourages more vigorous resprouting. Research at Purdue University has shown that the herbicides Picloram and 2,4-D or 20 percent triclopyr ester in an oil carrier are highly effective for this method but follow-up treatments will be required. (Rathfon and Lowe, 2012). Landowners can obtain free technical information and assistance from their local NRCS office or university extension service in the selection and use of herbicides. Spring prescribed burning has been shown to kill bush honeysuckle seedlings and damage the tops of mature plants; however, these plants will easily re-sprout so it may be necessary to burn annually or biennially for five years or more for effective control. (Missouri Department of Conservation, 2011)

Restoration pathway R3B
State 3 to 2

Low quality woodlands with dense honeysuckle could be transitioned to a pasture state on lower-slope sites. The cost and level of inputs for this restoration would depend on access, age of trees, density of honeysuckle and goals of the landowner. This restoration would be a long-term effort requiring planting of desired species and multiple years of brush and weed control.

Restoration pathway R4A
State 4 to 1

A transitional field will move naturally with time to an eastern red cedar woodland. However, depending on the length of time in pasture and the available seed sources naturally available, restoration activities may be required. Most long-term pasture sites will not have the oak-hickory seed source necessary to transition successfully to a mature oak-hickory forest. Tree planting, timber stand improvement activities (removal of less desirable tree species), weed and grass control, and planting of native understory species may be required to fully restore this community.

Restoration pathway R4B
State 4 to 2

With management inputs, the transitional field state could be restored back to a pasture state. Tree removal, mowing, weed control, seeding, and fertilizing may be required. Because this ecological site description includes rocky sites with soil depths of 10 to 20 inches, landowners should be advised to consider their site characteristics carefully. Many of these transitional field sites were previously pasture and were abandoned becuase of low productivity and difficulty in management due to slope and rock content. Control of cedar, if so desired, can be accomplished by burning, chemical control, or manual removal. Eastern red cedar seedlings and saplings are very susceptible to fire with winter or spring burning usually recommended as the leaf water content is lower. However, research has shown burning is most effective on cedars up to 1m tall (3.3 feet) although larger trees can be occasionally killed (Anderson, 2003). Burning is not without complications including incomplete control, narrow window of conditions, need for grazing management (pre and post burn), and risk of fire escape.