Dry Sandy Upland Woodland
List model
Reference State - Longleaf Pine/ Turkey Oak - Southern wiregrass upland
Longleaf Pine - Oak Woodland
Hardwood-Mixed Pine Forest
Mixed Oak - Hardwood Forest
Planted Longleaf Pine with Native ground cover
Pine Plantation - Non-native ground cover
Crop or Pasture land
Abandoned/Old Field
Scenario model
Current ecosystem state
Select a state
Management practices/drivers
Select a transition or restoration pathway
- Transition T1A More details
- Transition T1B More details
- Transition T1C More details
- Transition T1D More details
- Transition T1E More details
- Restoration pathway R2A More details
- Transition T2A More details
- Transition T2B More details
- Transition T2C More details
- Transition T2D More details
- Transition T2E More details
- Restoration pathway R3A More details
- Transition T3A More details
- Transition T3B More details
- Transition T3C More details
- Transition T3D More details
- Transition T3E More details
- Restoration pathway R4A More details
- Transition T4A More details
- Transition T4B More details
- Transition T4C More details
- Transition T4D More details
- Restoration pathway R5A More details
- Transition T5A More details
- Transition T5B More details
- Transition T5C More details
- Transition T5D More details
- Restoration pathway R6A More details
- Transition T6A More details
- Transition T6B More details
- Restoration pathway R7B More details
- Restoration pathway R7A More details
- Transition T7A More details
- Restoration pathway R8A More details
- Restoration pathway R8B More details
- Transition T8A More details
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No transition or restoration pathway between the selected states has been described
Target ecosystem state
Select a state
State 1
Reference State - Longleaf Pine/ Turkey Oak - Southern wiregrass upland
Description
This is the historic climax plant community for this ecological site. An open canopy of longleaf pine exists with a minimal scrub oak understory, commonly turkey oak (Quercus laevis) with some bluejack oak (Q. incana). Fire is the most important process in maintaining the natural vegetation of this ecological site. The amount of canopy closure in this community depends on the fire regime. Lack of fire tends to lead to the degradation of the natural vegetation by causing canopy closure by hardwoods and loss of longleaf pine and native grasses.
Submodel
Description
The longleaf pine-hardwood forest state is characterized by a more closed canopy relative to the reference state. Turkey oak (Quercus laevis) cover begins to rival longleaf pine. Less fire-tolerant pines such as loblolly pine (Pinus taeda) begin to establish. Hardwood trees such as dwarf post oak (Q. margarettae), bluejack oak (Q. incana), and persimmon (Diospyros virginiana) compete with the remaining longleaf for canopy space. Shrub density and mass is increased relative to the reference state. Herbaceous species richness and productivity will continue to decline with canopy closure and the resulting decrease in sunlight penetration. Species richness is the number of different species present.
Submodel
Description
Lack of a favorable environment for regeneration and competition from hardwoods and other pines have resulted in either longleaf being lost from the site, or remaining individual trees being widely dispersed. Pines such as loblolly pine may have become established due to lack of fire. Canopy closure approaches 100 percent, dominated by oaks with some hickory, sweetgum, and persimmon. Because of lack of sunlight penetration to the understory, shrub size and numbers are reduced relative to state 2, and herbaceous species characteristic of the reference state are very sparse or no longer present.
Submodel
Description
The Mixed Oak - Hardwood state is the product of long-term lack of fire management (century scale?). This community phase is naturally present in patches within the larger ecological site, most often on microsites that are protected from fire (Frost and Langley, 2008; Edwards et al., 2013). However, large-scale fire suppression allows continued encroachment of fire-tolerant oaks, and longleaf pine reproduction eventually ceases. This leaves the site open for continued scrub oak domination. Fine fuels typical for low intensity ground fires are absent, but coarser fuels such as branches and leaves are present.
At Fort Gordon near Augusta, GA, this state has resulted from annual dormant season burns after hardwood establishment (Michale Juhan, personal communication). The timing and frequency of the prescribed fire have not been favorable for longleaf regeneration. Brockway and Outcalt (2000) suggest that presecribed fire alone is not effective at enhancing natural longleaf establishment after a major disturbance event such as wildfire. Hardwood removal (chemical or mechanical) in combination with prescribed fire is much more effective.
Submodel
Description
Longleaf pine are planted to grow trees to a marketable size or to attempt to restore a system that would be similar to the reference plant community and in the interim sell pine straw as an urban landscape mulch (Alig et al., 2002). However, the richness of herbaceous species and associated animals are unlikely to completely mimic the reference state. However, this state is a functioning ecosystem with strong similarities to the reference plant community. Planted pines are generally even-aged and evenly spaced. If longleaf pine planting density is too high, the trees will shade out heliophytic native ground cover. In dense even-aged stands needle fall may be high, which can contribute to hotter fires. Consultation with a professional forester is recommended before establishing a longleaf pine plantation. Grasses commonly planted in this state are wiregrass, little bluestem, Indiangrass and switchgrass.
Submodel
Description
Loblolly and slash are the pine species most often planted in the region to produce a marketable wood product. Establishment of these pines has resulted in longleaf stands lacking native ground cover. Subsequent management will be in keeping with long-term and interim objectives and may include vegetation management with prescribed burning, and periodic stand thinning.
Submodel
Description
If a pine plantation is not established, the most common agricultural use of the site is pasture or hay production. Fruit and vegetable production, and row crops can be regionally important.
Agricultural yield information is available through Web Soil Survey (WSS) and can accessed here: http://websoilsurvey.nrcs.usda.gov/app/HomePage.htm
Description
When management or regular disturbances cease on cut-over forest, row crop or forage land, weedy and woody species become established.
The abandoned field state is recognized by secondary plant community succession.
Invasive species such as Chinese privet (Ligustrum sinense), silktree (Albiziz julibrissin), and cogon grass (Imperata cylindrical) can invade and dominate southern pine sites and prevent many uses. Cogon grass is particularly difficult and costly to control.
Transition T1A
Mechanism
Continued infrequent or lack of fire will lead to a transition from state 1 to state 2. Increased hardwood and shrub development will occur, and these species will become more fire-tolerant as basal diameters increase. Lack of fire allows the accumulation of a thick litter layer, which inhibits longleaf pine seed germination. Lack of longleaf regeneration further enhances the success of hardwood species.
The threshold from state 1 to state 2 is crossed when the natural fire frequency is removed for more than 5 years. Without persistent and costly management, reversal (restoring state 1) is extremely difficult (Walker and Silletti, 2006).
Transition T1B
Mechanism
Transition from state 1 to state 5: Clear cut, plant longleaf, re-establish native groundcover if necessary
Although not recommended, it is possible to convert from state 1 to state 5. Site preparation should occur after an area is clear cut. Coarse woody debris can impede tree planters. Concentrating debris in windrows and piles and burning it is recommended. Unwanted vegetation should be controlled prior to planting to reduce competition for the new stand. This can be accomplished by mechanical and/or chemical methods. Herbicide prescriptions can be developed to target specific species or groups of unwanted vegetation. For example, some herbicides target woody plants; others kill grasses or legumes. Care should be taken when using herbicides to avoid unwanted disturbance and herbicide application to any remaining native ground cover.
The site should be monitored for appearance of native groundcover. If herbaceous species do not naturally regenerate, the seed source may have been lost. Native groundcover should be established by planting.
Selective cutting can perpetuate stand integrity while providing monetary gain to the landowner. Professional foresters should be consulted on this type of management goal.
Transition T1C
Mechanism
Transition from state 1 to state 6: Clear cut, plant pines (longleaf, loblolly, slash), maintain 2-3 year fire frequency
Although not recommended, it is possible to convert from State 1 to State 6. Site preparation should occur after an area is clear cut. Coarse woody debris can impede tree planters. Concentrating debris in windrows and piles and burning it is recommended. Unwanted vegetation should be controlled prior to planting to reduce competition for the new stand. This can be accomplished by mechanical and/or chemical methods. Herbicide prescriptions can be developed to target specific species or groups of unwanted vegetation. For example, some herbicides target woody plants, while others kill grasses or legumes.
Selective cutting can perpetuate stand integrity while providing monetary gain to the landowner. Professional foresters should be consulted on this type of management goal.
Mechanism
Transition from State 1 to State 7: Clear-cut, stump and brush removal, establish crop or pasture
Mechanism
Transition from State 1 to State 8: Although not recommended, it is possible to transition from the reference state to the Abandoned/Old Field State. This would occur upon clear-cutting and abandonment.
Restoration pathway R2A
Mechanism
Restoration from state 2 to state 1: Reintroduction of 2-3 year fire frequency, hardwood removal and/or herbicide if necessary
A return to the 2-3 year fire frequency can restore state 2 to state 1. Longleaf forests accumulate high levels of litter due to the large size and decay resistance of the needles. Care should be exercised when re-introducing fire to this community. Fuel treatments such as raking and/or wetting the area around existing trees and mowing to remove standing fuels might be necessary to prevent mortality of the overstory. In some areas, removal of hardwoods by mechanical or chemical means can hasten restoration (Provencher et al., 2001; Brockway and Outcalt, 2000).
Relevant conservation practices
| Practice | External resources |
|---|---|
|
Brush Management |
|
|
Prescribed Burning |
|
|
Restoration and Management of Rare and Declining Habitats |
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|
Forest Stand Improvement |
Mechanism
Transition from state 2 to state 3: Continued lack of fire or infrequent burning
Continued fire suppression (> 5 year fire return interval) can affect significant changes in vegetation structure and composition in this ecological site. Hardwood encroachment and establishment is outcompeting the remaining longleaf pine. Furthermore, natural regeneration of longleaf pine and the native herbaceous groundcover species is retarded.
Transition T2B
Mechanism
Transition from state 2 to state 5: Remove existing hardwoods (and pines if desired), plant longleaf, re-establish native groundcover if necessary, reintroduction of 2-3 year fire frequency
After timber removal, site preparation should occur. Coarse woody debris can impede tree planters. Concentrating debris in windrows and piles and burning it is recommended. Unwanted vegetation should be controlled prior to planting to reduce competition for the new stand. This can be accomplished by mechanical and/or chemical methods. Herbicide prescriptions can be developed to target specific species or groups of unwanted vegetation. For example, some herbicides target woody plants, while others kill grasses or legumes. Care should be taken when using herbicides, as further disturbance and herbicide application can be detrimental to any remaining native ground cover.
The site should be monitored for the appearance of native groundcover. If herbaceous species do not naturally regenerate, the seed source may have been lost. Native groundcover should be established by planting.
Mechanism
Transition from state 2 to state 6: Clear cut (or hardwood removal), plant pines (longleaf, loblolly, slash), reintroduction of 2-3 year fire frequency
After timber removal, site preparation should occur. Coarse woody debris can impede tree planters. Concentrating debris in windrows and piles and burning it is recommended. Unwanted vegetation should be controlled prior to planting to reduce competition for the new stand. This can be accomplished by mechanical and/or chemical methods. Herbicide prescriptions can be developed to target specific species or groups of unwanted vegetation. For example, some herbicides target woody plants, while others kill grasses or legumes. If transitioning to community phase 6.1, longleaf pine should be planted if necessary. If transitioning to community phase 6.2, other pine species should be planted.
Mechanism
Transition from state 2 to state 7: Clear-cut, stump and brush removal, establish crop or pasture
Mechanism
Transition from state 2 to state 8: Although not recommended, it is possible to transition from this state to the Abandoned/Old field state. This would occur upon clear-cutting and abandonment.
Mechanism
Restoration from state 3 to state 2: Mechanical and chemical removal of hardwoods and unwanted pines (loblolly, slash), planting longleaf pine if necessary, reintroduction of 3-5 year fire return interval.
Longleaf forests accumulate high levels of litter because needles are large and decay resistant. High residual fuel loads may be present where longleaf pine occur. If desired longleaf pine trees are still present on the site, care should be exercised when re-introducing fire to this community. Fuel treatments such as raking and/or wetting the area around existing trees and mowing to remove standing fuels might be necessary to prevent mortality of the overstory.
Site preparation is important after timber removal. Coarse woody debris can impede tree planters. Concentrating debris in
windrows and piles and burning it is recommended. Unwanted vegetation should be controlled prior to planting to reduce competition for the new stand. This can be accomplished by mechanical and/or chemical methods. Herbicide prescriptions can be developed to target specific species or groups of unwanted vegetation. For example, some herbicides target woody plants, while others kill grasses or legumes. Care should be taken when using herbicides to avoid unwanted disturbance and herbicide application to any remaining native ground cover.
The site should be monitored for the appearance of native grasses. If herbaceous species do not naturally regenerate, the seed source may have been lost. If native grasses must be planted becuase no seed source is present, the system cannot be restored to state 2, but will resemble the functioning ecosystem of state 5.
Relevant conservation practices
| Practice | External resources |
|---|---|
|
Brush Management |
|
|
Prescribed Burning |
|
|
Tree/Shrub Site Preparation |
|
|
Tree/Shrub Establishment |
|
|
Restoration and Management of Rare and Declining Habitats |
|
|
Forest Stand Improvement |
Mechanism
Transition from state 3 to state 4: Continued lack of fire or infrequent burning
Continued fire suppression results in further significant changes in vegetation structure and composition in this ecological site. Hardwood species, particularly scrub oaks, now dominate the forest mid-story, and herbaceous ground cover is largely absent. This community is unable to carry low intensity fires without drastic chemical or mechanical treatments, or catastrophic fires.
Transition T3B
Mechanism
Transition from state 3 to state 5: Remove oaks and other hardwoods, plant longleaf, re-establish native groundcover if necessary, reintroduction of 2-3 year fire frequency
After timber removal, site preparation should occur. Coarse woody debris can impede tree planters. Concentrating debris in windrows and piles and burning it is recommended. Unwanted vegetation should be controlled prior to planting to reduce competition for the new stand. This can be accomplished by mechanical and/or chemical methods. Herbicide prescriptions can be developed to target specific species or groups of unwanted vegetation. For example, some herbicides target woody plants, while others kill grasses or legumes. Care should be taken when using herbicides to avoid unwanted disturbance and herbicide application to any remaining native ground cover.
The site should be monitored for the appearance of native groundcover. If herbaceous species do not naturally regenerate, the seed source may have been lost. Native groundcover should be established by planting.
Mechanism
Transition from state 3 to state 6: Clear cut (or hardwood removal), plant pines (longleaf, loblolly, slash), re-establish native groundcover if necessary, reintroduction of 2-3 year fire frequency
After timber removal, site preparation should occur. Coarse woody debris can impede tree planters. Concentrating debris in windrows and piles and burning it is recommended. Unwanted vegetation should be controlled prior to planting to reduce competition for the new stand. This can be accomplished by mechanical and/or chemical methods. Herbicide prescriptions can be developed to target specific species or groups of unwanted vegetation. For example, some herbicides target woody plants, while others kill grasses or legumes.
Mechanism
Transition from state 3 to state 7: Clear-cut, stump and brush removal, establish crop or pasture
Mechanism
Transition from state 3 to state 8: Although not recommended, it is possible to transition from this state to the Abandoned/Old field State. This would occur upon clear-cutting and abandonment.
Mechanism
Restoration from state 4 to state 3: Mechanical and chemical removal of hardwoods, establishment of pines if necessary, reintroduction of 3-5 year fire return interval.
Site preparation is important after timber removal. Coarse woody debris can impede tree planters. Concentrating debris in windrows and piles and burning it is recommended. Unwanted vegetation should be controlled prior to planting to reduce competition for the new stand. This can be accomplished by mechanical and/or chemical methods. Herbicide prescriptions can be developed to target specific species or groups of unwanted vegetation. For example, some herbicides target woody plants, while others kill grasses or legumes. Care should be taken when using herbicides, as disturbance and herbicide application can be detrimental to any remaining native ground cover.
The site should be monitored for the appearance of native groundcover. If herbaceous species do not naturally regenerate, the seed source may have been lost. Native groundcover should be established by planting.
Relevant conservation practices
| Practice | External resources |
|---|---|
|
Brush Management |
|
|
Prescribed Burning |
|
|
Tree/Shrub Site Preparation |
|
|
Tree/Shrub Establishment |
|
|
Restoration and Management of Rare and Declining Habitats |
|
|
Forest Stand Improvement |
Transition T4A
Mechanism
Transition from state 4 to state 5: Hardwood removal (clear-cut, herbicide), longleaf establishment, native groundcover restoration if needed, reintroduction of 2-3 year fire frequency
Site preparation is important after timber removal. Coarse woody debris can impede tree planters. Concentrating debris in windrows and piles and burning it is recommended. Unwanted vegetation should be controlled prior to planting to reduce competition for the new stand. This can be accomplished by mechanical and/or chemical methods. Herbicide prescriptions can be developed to target specific species or groups of unwanted vegetation. For example, some herbicides target woody plants, while others kill grasses or legumes. Care should be taken when using herbicides, as disturbance and herbicide application can be detrimental to any remaining native ground cover.
Mechanism
Transition from state 4 to state 6: Hardwood removal (clear-cut, herbicide), plant pines (longleaf, loblolly, slash), reintroduction of 2-3 year fire frequency
After timber removal, site preparation should occur. Coarse woody debris can impede tree planters. Concentrating debris in windrows and piles and burning it is recommended. Unwanted vegetation should be controlled prior to planting to reduce competition for the new stand. This can be accomplished by mechanical and/or chemical methods. Herbicide prescriptions can be developed to target specific species or groups of unwanted vegetation. For example, some herbicides target woody plants, while others kill grasses or legumes.
Mechanism
Transition from state 4 to state 7: Clear-cut, stump and brush removal, establish crop or pasture
Mechanism
Transition from state 4 to state 8: Clear cut and abandonment or lack of management
Restoration pathway R5A
Mechanism
Restoration from state 5 to state 1: This will require very long-term management (century-scale) in order to achieve an uneven-aged stand. This option is not viable for one generation of ownership to accomplish. In order to achieve the reference state, the stand must be managed to be uneven-aged.
Relevant conservation practices
| Practice | External resources |
|---|---|
|
Prescribed Burning |
|
|
Restoration and Management of Rare and Declining Habitats |
|
|
Forest Stand Improvement |
Transition T5A
Mechanism
Transition from state 5 to state 2: Lack of fire (fire return interval > 3 years)
Fire suppression can significantly change the vegetation structure and composition of this ecological site. Hardwood encroachment results from fire suppression. Furthermore, natural regeneration of longleaf pine and the native herbaceous groundcover species is retarded as fuels build up.
However, this transition would be different in that state 2 describes natural longleaf stands. The transition from a planted stand would have different age structure, but the trigger (lack of fire) would be the same. This would cause the result to be most like state 2 except the pines would be even-aged.
Transition T5B
Mechanism
Transition from state 5 to state 6: Although it is not recommended to transition from a system that contains native ground cover, it is possible if tree density is too high and shades out the native heliophytic vegetation. If transitioning to community phase 6.1, native ground cover is lost. If transitioning to community phase 6.2, longleaf pine is removed, and native groundcover is lost.
Mechanism
Transition from state 5 to state 7: Clear-cut, stump and brush removal, crop/pasture establishment
Restoration pathway R6A
Mechanism
Restoration from state 6 to state 5: If transitioning from phase 6.1, native ground cover restoration should occur. If transitioning from phase 6.2, longleaf pine needs to be established in addition to native ground cover establishment. This requires removal of other pine species. Site preparation should occur after timber removal. Coarse woody debris can impede tree planters. Concentrating debris in windrows and piles and burning it is recommended. Unwanted vegetation should be controlled prior to planting to reduce competition for the new stand. This can be accomplished by mechanical and/or chemical methods. Herbicide prescriptions can be developed to target specific species or groups of unwanted vegetation. For example, some herbicides target woody plants, while others kill grasses or legumes. Care should be taken when using herbicides to avoid unwanted disturbance and herbicide application to any remaining native ground cover.
Relevant conservation practices
| Practice | External resources |
|---|---|
|
Brush Management |
|
|
Prescribed Burning |
|
|
Tree/Shrub Site Preparation |
|
|
Tree/Shrub Establishment |
|
|
Restoration and Management of Rare and Declining Habitats |
|
|
Forest Stand Improvement |
Mechanism
Transition from state 6 to state 7: Clear-cut, stump and brush removal, crop/pasture establishment
Mechanism
Restoration from State 7 to State 5: Assess site suitability (pH requirements for longleaf pine), specific site preparation (scalping, subsoiling), plant longleaf pine, establish native groundcover
This restoration pathway requires specific management. First, many agricultural fields and pastures have received lime applications, which, over time have increased the pH of the soil. It is difficult to successfully establish longleaf pine on sites with a pH higher than 7.0. If pH is not an issue, the pasture grasses and agricultural weed complex will be. Aggressive control of these herbaceous species can be achieved using appropriate herbicides. A technique called scalping has also proved to be beneficial on agricultural lands, particularly pastures. Scalping essentially forms a shallow (2-4”) but wide (30-36”) furrow by peeling the soil back. Scalping is not recommended for wet areas or soils with high clay content because the scalped rows may hold too much water and drown the seedlings. Highly compacted crop land may require sub-soiling prior to planting to break up any overly compacted soil that will inhibit seedling establishment.
Relevant conservation practices
| Practice | External resources |
|---|---|
|
Prescribed Burning |
|
|
Firebreak |
|
|
Tree/Shrub Site Preparation |
|
|
Tree/Shrub Establishment |
|
|
Restoration and Management of Rare and Declining Habitats |
|
|
Forest Stand Improvement |
Mechanism
Restoration from State 7 to State 6: Site preparation, longleaf or other pine planting, and reintroduction of 2-3 year fire frequency
This restoration pathway requires specific management. First, many agricultural fields and pastures have received lime applications, which, over time have increased the pH of the soil. It is difficult to successfully establish longleaf pine on sites with a pH higher than 7.0. If pH is not an issue, the pasture grasses and agricultural weed complex will be. Aggressive control of these herbaceous species can be achieved using appropriate herbicides. A technique called scalping has also proved to be beneficial on agricultural lands, particularly pastures. Scalping essentially forms a shallow (2-4”) but wide (30-36”) furrow by peeling the soil back. Scalping is not recommended for wet areas or soils with high clay content because the scalped rows may hold too much water and drown the seedlings. Highly compacted crop land may require sub-soiling prior to planting to break up any overly compacted soil that will inhibit seedling establishment.
Relevant conservation practices
| Practice | External resources |
|---|---|
|
Brush Management |
|
|
Prescribed Burning |
|
|
Firebreak |
|
|
Tree/Shrub Site Preparation |
|
|
Restoration and Management of Rare and Declining Habitats |
|
|
Forest Stand Improvement |
|
|
Transition from Irrigation to Dry-land Plan - Applied |
Mechanism
Restoration from State 8 to State 5: Longleaf pine establishment and native groundcover restoration should occur. This requires removal of other pine species. After timber removal, site preparation should occur. Coarse woody debris can impede tree planters. Concentrating debris in windrows and piles and burning it is recommended. Unwanted vegetation should be controlled prior to planting to reduce competition for the new stand. This can be accomplished by mechanical and/or chemical methods. Herbicide prescriptions can be developed to target specific species or groups of unwanted vegetation. For example, some herbicide target woody plants, while others kill grasses or legumes. Care should be taken when using herbicides, as further disturbance and herbicide application can be detrimental to any remaining native ground cover.
Relevant conservation practices
| Practice | External resources |
|---|---|
|
Brush Management |
|
|
Prescribed Burning |
|
|
Firebreak |
|
|
Tree/Shrub Site Preparation |
|
|
Tree/Shrub Establishment |
|
|
Restoration and Management of Rare and Declining Habitats |
|
|
Forest Stand Improvement |
Mechanism
Restoration from State 8 to State 6: Land must be cleared, brush removed, and pines established
This requires removal of hardwood and other undesirable species. After timber removal, site preparation should occur. Coarse woody debris can impede tree planters. Concentrating debris in windrows and piles and burning it is recommended. Unwanted vegetation should be controlled prior to planting to reduce competition for the new stand. This can be accomplished by mechanical and/or chemical methods. Herbicide prescriptions can be developed to target specific species or groups of unwanted vegetation. For example, some herbicide target woody plants, while others kill grasses or legumes. Care should be taken when using herbicides, as further disturbance and herbicide application can be detrimental to any remaining native ground cover.
Relevant conservation practices
| Practice | External resources |
|---|---|
|
Brush Management |
|
|
Prescribed Burning |
|
|
Firebreak |
|
|
Tree/Shrub Site Preparation |
|
|
Tree/Shrub Establishment |
Model keys
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