State 1
Reference State - Longleaf Pine/ Turkey Oak - Southern wiregrass upland

This is the historic climax plant community for this ecological site. An open canopy of longleaf pine exists with a minimal scrub oak understory, commonly turkey oak (Quercus laevis) with some bluejack oak (Q. incana). Fire is the most important process in maintaining the natural vegetation of this ecological site. The amount of canopy closure in this community depends on the fire regime. Lack of fire tends to lead to the degradation of the natural vegetation by causing canopy closure by hardwoods and loss of longleaf pine and native grasses.

Community 1.1
Longleaf pine-wiregrass

Figure 9. Fort Gordon, GA red-cockaded woodpecker site

Figure 10. Community Phase 1.1

The overstory of this community is dominated by widely-spaced mature longleaf pine. Typical pine canopy cover ranges from 5 to 40 percent. Canopies are open and trees are uneven-aged but the community also includes variably-sized openings with even-aged trees. These openings result from windstorms, timber harvest, hot fires, or insect-induced mortality. For longleaf pine seed germination to occur, abundant light and bare soil are needed. These conditions are found in canopy gaps immediately following fire events. Common mid-story vegetation cover is generally sparse and composed mainly of oak species. Turkey oak (Quercus laevis) is the most common, followed by bluejack (Q. incana) and dwarf post oak (Q. margarettae). Some oaks can persist even though frequent fire discourages hardwood establishment. For most sites, a fire return interval of two to three years prevents hardwood invasion (Edwards et al., 2013). Species richness is high in the herbaceous understory of these communities (Peet and Allard, 1993). Wiregrass (Aristida species) is the dominant grass, but bluestems (Schizachrium and Andropogon species), and rosette grass (Dicanthelium sp.) can also be found. Georgia bear grass (Nolina georgiana), a rare species, is also found in dry longleaf pinelands (Sorrie, 2011). Grass-dominated groundcover provides necessary fine fuels for the spread of surface fires. Frequent low intensity fire is necessary for the perpetuation of this community phase.

Forest overstory. Pinus palustris (longleaf pine)

Forest understory. Quercus laevis (turkey oak)
Quercus incana (bluejack oak)
Quercus margarettae (dwarf post oak)
Diospyros virginiana (persimmon)
Sassafras albidum (sassafras)
Aristida beyrichiana (Beyrich threeawn)
Gaylusaccia dumosa (dwarf huckleberry)
Vaccinium stamineum (deerberry)
Tephrosia virginiana (Virginia tephrosia)
Baptisia perfoliata (catbells)

Community 1.2
Mature longleaf pine overstory, mid- and understory oak encroachment, in need of fire

Figure 11. Longleaf pine with accelerating oak encroachment.

This community phase is generally the result of lower fire frequency. Either fire suppression or a change in fire regime (burning every 3 to 5 years, dormant season burns) allows woody vegetation growth in the mid- and understory. Species composition is similar to phase 1.1. The dominant overstory species is longleaf pine, which are widely spaced across the landscape. Because of the buildup of litter and resulting lack of bare mineral soil, longleaf pine regeneration is inhibited. If fire suppression continues, oaks and other hardwoods will thrive, eventually out-competing any young longleaf that have managed to become established. In addition, herbaceous groundcover is not as abundant as in phase 1.1, although species composition is similar. Changes in fire regime result in successful hardwood encroachment, litter accumulation, and a subsequent shift in herbaceous species abundances.

Forest overstory. longleaf pine (Pinus palustris)
turkey oak (Quercus laevis)

Pathway 1.1A
Community 1.1 to 1.2

Longleaf pine-wiregrass

Mature longleaf pine overstory, mid- and understory oak encroachment, in need of fire

A fire frequency of two to three years controls encroaching hardwood trees and shrubs. Longleaf pine seed germination is promoted by eliminating thick litter layer development. Extended fire suppression or fire regime alteration will cause community phase 1.1 to transition to community phase 1.2. If the fire return interval persistently exceeds three years or fires occur during the dormant season, encroaching hardwoods will become well established. Longleaf pine seed germination will be severely inhibited due to litter accumulation and lack of bare soil.

Pathway 1.2A
Community 1.2 to 1.1

Mature longleaf pine overstory, mid- and understory oak encroachment, in need of fire

Longleaf pine-wiregrass

A return to a fire frequency of one to three years will revert community phase 1.2 to the reference community phase (1.1). This can be achieved by wildland fire or prescribed burning. In some areas, removal of hardwoods by mechanical or chemical means can speed up the restoration (Provencher et al., 2001; Brockway and Outcalt, 2000).

State 2
Longleaf Pine - Oak Woodland

The longleaf pine-hardwood forest state is characterized by a more closed canopy relative to the reference state. Turkey oak (Quercus laevis) cover begins to rival longleaf pine. Less fire-tolerant pines such as loblolly pine (Pinus taeda) begin to establish. Hardwood trees such as dwarf post oak (Q. margarettae), bluejack oak (Q. incana), and persimmon (Diospyros virginiana) compete with the remaining longleaf for canopy space. Shrub density and mass is increased relative to the reference state. Herbaceous species richness and productivity will continue to decline with canopy closure and the resulting decrease in sunlight penetration. Species richness is the number of different species present.

Community 2.1
Degraded longleaf pine with sparse regeneration, intermediate mid-story, and fair ground cover

Figure 12. State 2

More than five years of fire suppression crosses a threshold from state 1 to state 2. This state is characterized by scattered longleaf pine. Continued fire suppression allows turkey oak seedlings to reach basal diameters greater than four inches, which allows the hardwoods to resist surface fires that may occur. Thus, turkey oak cover begins to rival that of longleaf pine, and, due to lack of longleaf pine regeneration will become dominant. Loblolly pine (Pinus taeda) may also begin to encroach. Herbaceous species richness suffers from continued fire suppression. Increased shade negatively impacts native groundcover as hardwood coverage continues to expand. The result is degraded stand structure and reduction in fine fuels needed to carry a prescribed burn. This cycle continues to support hardwood dominance.

Forest overstory. Pinus palustris (longleaf pine)
Quercus laevis (turkey oak)
Quercus margarettae (dwarf post oak)
Quercus incana (bluejack oak)
Diospyros virginiana (persimmon)

State 3
Hardwood-Mixed Pine Forest

Lack of a favorable environment for regeneration and competition from hardwoods and other pines have resulted in either longleaf being lost from the site, or remaining individual trees being widely dispersed. Pines such as loblolly pine may have become established due to lack of fire. Canopy closure approaches 100 percent, dominated by oaks with some hickory, sweetgum, and persimmon. Because of lack of sunlight penetration to the understory, shrub size and numbers are reduced relative to state 2, and herbaceous species characteristic of the reference state are very sparse or no longer present.

Community 3.1
Mixed hardwood- Pine forest

Figure 13. State 3, cropped image

Figure 14. State 3

The canopy of this community phase is usually dominated by turkey oak (Quercus laevis) and can have scattered loblolly pine (Pinus taeda). Longleaf can still be present, but regeneration is not occurring. Other oaks (Q. incana, Q. margarettae), persimmon (Diospyros virginiana), and sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua) are also present. The absence of fuels from pine needles and herbaceous plants will further decrease the ability of the site to carry surface fires and perpetuate the scrub oak-dominated forest.

Forest overstory. Pinus palustris (longleaf pine)
Pinus taeda (loblolly pine)
Quercus laevis (turkey oak)

Forest understory. Gaylussacia dumosa (dwarf huckleberry)
Vaccinium stamineum (deerberry)
Tephrosia virginiana (Virginia tephrosia)

State 4
Mixed Oak - Hardwood Forest

The Mixed Oak - Hardwood state is the product of long-term lack of fire management (century scale?). This community phase is naturally present in patches within the larger ecological site, most often on microsites that are protected from fire (Frost and Langley, 2008; Edwards et al., 2013). However, large-scale fire suppression allows continued encroachment of fire-tolerant oaks, and longleaf pine reproduction eventually ceases. This leaves the site open for continued scrub oak domination. Fine fuels typical for low intensity ground fires are absent, but coarser fuels such as branches and leaves are present. At Fort Gordon near Augusta, GA, this state has resulted from annual dormant season burns after hardwood establishment (Michale Juhan, personal communication). The timing and frequency of the prescribed fire have not been favorable for longleaf regeneration. Brockway and Outcalt (2000) suggest that presecribed fire alone is not effective at enhancing natural longleaf establishment after a major disturbance event such as wildfire. Hardwood removal (chemical or mechanical) in combination with prescribed fire is much more effective.

Community 4.1
Mixed oak - Hardwood Forest

Figure 15. Turkey oak-dominated site at Fort Gordon in GA

This could probably use some fleshing out... This community phase is naturally present in patches within the larger ecological site, most often on microsites that are protected from fire (Frost and Langley, 2008; Edwards et al., 2013). However, long-term fire suppression or lack of forest management can lead to larger spatial coverage of this state (Sorrie, 2011). After continued encroachment of fire-tolerant oaks, longleaf pine reproduction eventually ceases. This leaves the site open for continued scrub oak domination. Fine fuels needed to carry low intensity ground fires are absent, but coarser fuels such as branches and leaves are present.

Forest overstory. Quercus laevis (turkey oak)
Quercus incana (bluejack oak)
Pinus palustris (longleaf pine)
Pinus taeda (loblolly pine)
Sassafras albidum (sassafras)
Diospyros virginiana (persimmon)

Forest understory. Tephrosia virginiana (Virginia tephrosia)
Vaccinium stamineum (deerberry)

State 5
Planted Longleaf Pine with Native ground cover

Longleaf pine are planted to grow trees to a marketable size or to attempt to restore a system that would be similar to the reference plant community and in the interim sell pine straw as an urban landscape mulch (Alig et al., 2002). However, the richness of herbaceous species and associated animals are unlikely to completely mimic the reference state. However, this state is a functioning ecosystem with strong similarities to the reference plant community. Planted pines are generally even-aged and evenly spaced. If longleaf pine planting density is too high, the trees will shade out heliophytic native ground cover. In dense even-aged stands needle fall may be high, which can contribute to hotter fires. Consultation with a professional forester is recommended before establishing a longleaf pine plantation. Grasses commonly planted in this state are wiregrass, little bluestem, Indiangrass and switchgrass.

Community 5.1
Planted longleaf pine-native grasses

Figure 16. State 5: Young longleaf plantation

A shift to a planted longleaf pine - native grass state could be made from any other forested state in the ecological site by clear cutting, preparing the site and establishing pines and native ground cover (Fox et al., 2004). On former cropland, pasture or old field states, scalping and subsoiling will probably be necessary when preparing the site for tree planting. A planted longleaf pine - native grass state can be managed with fire and utilized as wildlife habitat or livestock grazing land. If shifted from a hardwood forest state, clear cut hardwood trees will sprout from the roots and will have to be controlled, usually with herbicides. If not controlled when the longleaf seedlings are young, hardwood trees and shrubs will likely overcome the site, overtopping and out- competing the longleaf seedlings for light. If shifted from a pine plantation state, a large variety of species could occur in the understory including trees, shrubs, vines, grasses, and grass-like species, forbs, and ferns. Supplemental planting of native understory species may or may not be needed depending on condition of the seed bank and the goals and objectives of the land manager. If pine species other than longleaf were originally established, the plantation can be shifted to longleaf either gradually with selective cutting, prescribed burning and longleaf seedling planting, or all at once with a clearcut, site prep and longleaf plantation establishment. If shifted from a pasture, cropland, or abandoned field state, the understory vegetation will likely be determined by the existing vegetation prior to tree planting and the field preparation that took place. If no permanent vegetation was present (i.e. crop field) then annual species will likely dominate the understory. If perennial grasses were present (i.e. pasture or abandoned field) then these grasses may return along with other annual species occasionally accompanied by greenbriar and blackberry. All understory species will start to diminish as the tree canopy closes unless thinning is utilized to manage for understory vegetation. More desirable native grasses and forbs will not be likely to appear from the seedbank if there is any history of cultivation. Supplemental planting will be necessary if native understory species restoration is a goal for the property. Planted longleaf pine - native grass states will need to be seeded or plugged to native warm season grasses such as wiregrass, little bluestem, and other native species that are commonly utilized as wildlife habitat. In these cases, tree canopy closure must be managed to allow for adequate light for understory vegetation to thrive.

State 6
Pine Plantation - Non-native ground cover

Loblolly and slash are the pine species most often planted in the region to produce a marketable wood product. Establishment of these pines has resulted in longleaf stands lacking native ground cover. Subsequent management will be in keeping with long-term and interim objectives and may include vegetation management with prescribed burning, and periodic stand thinning.

Community 6.1
Longleaf pine plantation with non-native groundcover

In recent years, longleaf pine planting has increased. However, not all tree planting is accompanied by native ground cover restoration. In the case of having non-native ground cover, the ecological functionality of the ecosystem does not mirror that of a complete longleaf pine-wiregrass ecosystem. Subsequent management should be planned with long term and interim objectives and may include vegetation management with prescribed burning and periodic stand thinning.

Forest overstory. Pinus palustris (longleaf pine)

Community 6.2
Loblolly or slash pine plantation

Figure 17. State 6 - Loblolly pine plantation

Southern pines can be managed in a variety of different ways and for a variety of different purposes including timber production, wildlife habitat, recreation, carbon sequestration, biomass production, pine straw production, silvopasture, or a combination of purposes. Pine plantations in this area are primarily managed for pulpwood or higher value products such as saw and veneer logs or utility poles. These products require using even-aged management that ultimately calls for clear-cutting and re-planting at the end of a specified rotation age. Precommercial thinning may occur as early as 5-10 years after stand establishment, and commercial thinning may occur at approximately 10 year intervals, usually producing pulpwood. Pine plantations usually undergo a final harvest between 25 and 45 years of age, but shorter rotation crops of 15 to 18 years are also considered. Silviculture practices include but are not limited to: site preparation, prescribed burning, tree planting, weed control, fertilization, and thinning (Alig et al., 2002). Alternative management prescriptions have been developed to allow for increased plant diversity, especially in the understory; improved wildlife habitat; and uneven-aged and mixed species overstories. Essentially these management prescriptions call for heavier thinning, more frequent prescribed burning and either planting or allowing natural regeneration of native grasses, forbs, shrubs and pine and/or hardwood trees. A proportion of the mature trees are allowed to reach much greater age than typical rotation ages for timber management purposes, creating greater variety of tree sizes and canopy structure. This state can be managed in a way to restore either the planted longleaf pine-native grass state (state 5) or the degraded longleaf pine woodland state (state 2). The pine plantation state can be maintained indefinitely unless a major disturbance such as a crown fire, inclement weather condition, pest, or disease contributes to eliminating the stand. Hardwood tree species will encroach after any thinning operation and must be controlled with prescribed fire, herbicides or a combination of both if a pure pine stand is desired.

Forest overstory. Pinus taeda
Pinus elliottii

State 7
Crop or Pasture land

If a pine plantation is not established, the most common agricultural use of the site is pasture or hay production. Fruit and vegetable production, and row crops can be regionally important. Agricultural yield information is available through Web Soil Survey (WSS) and can accessed here: http://websoilsurvey.nrcs.usda.gov/app/HomePage.htm

State 8
Abandoned/Old Field

When management or regular disturbances cease on cut-over forest, row crop or forage land, weedy and woody species become established. The abandoned field state is recognized by secondary plant community succession. Invasive species such as Chinese privet (Ligustrum sinense), silktree (Albiziz julibrissin), and cogon grass (Imperata cylindrical) can invade and dominate southern pine sites and prevent many uses. Cogon grass is particularly difficult and costly to control.

Transition T1A
State 1 to 2

Continued infrequent or lack of fire will lead to a transition from state 1 to state 2. Increased hardwood and shrub development will occur, and these species will become more fire-tolerant as basal diameters increase. Lack of fire allows the accumulation of a thick litter layer, which inhibits longleaf pine seed germination. Lack of longleaf regeneration further enhances the success of hardwood species. The threshold from state 1 to state 2 is crossed when the natural fire frequency is removed for more than 5 years. Without persistent and costly management, reversal (restoring state 1) is extremely difficult (Walker and Silletti, 2006).

Transition T1B
State 1 to 5

Transition from state 1 to state 5: Clear cut, plant longleaf, re-establish native groundcover if necessary Although not recommended, it is possible to convert from state 1 to state 5. Site preparation should occur after an area is clear cut. Coarse woody debris can impede tree planters. Concentrating debris in windrows and piles and burning it is recommended. Unwanted vegetation should be controlled prior to planting to reduce competition for the new stand. This can be accomplished by mechanical and/or chemical methods. Herbicide prescriptions can be developed to target specific species or groups of unwanted vegetation. For example, some herbicides target woody plants; others kill grasses or legumes. Care should be taken when using herbicides to avoid unwanted disturbance and herbicide application to any remaining native ground cover. The site should be monitored for appearance of native groundcover. If herbaceous species do not naturally regenerate, the seed source may have been lost. Native groundcover should be established by planting. Selective cutting can perpetuate stand integrity while providing monetary gain to the landowner. Professional foresters should be consulted on this type of management goal.

Transition T1C
State 1 to 6

Transition from state 1 to state 6: Clear cut, plant pines (longleaf, loblolly, slash), maintain 2-3 year fire frequency Although not recommended, it is possible to convert from State 1 to State 6. Site preparation should occur after an area is clear cut. Coarse woody debris can impede tree planters. Concentrating debris in windrows and piles and burning it is recommended. Unwanted vegetation should be controlled prior to planting to reduce competition for the new stand. This can be accomplished by mechanical and/or chemical methods. Herbicide prescriptions can be developed to target specific species or groups of unwanted vegetation. For example, some herbicides target woody plants, while others kill grasses or legumes. Selective cutting can perpetuate stand integrity while providing monetary gain to the landowner. Professional foresters should be consulted on this type of management goal.

Transition T1D
State 1 to 7

Transition from State 1 to State 7: Clear-cut, stump and brush removal, establish crop or pasture

Transition T1E
State 1 to 8

Transition from State 1 to State 8: Although not recommended, it is possible to transition from the reference state to the Abandoned/Old Field State. This would occur upon clear-cutting and abandonment.

Restoration pathway R2A
State 2 to 1

Restoration from state 2 to state 1: Reintroduction of 2-3 year fire frequency, hardwood removal and/or herbicide if necessary A return to the 2-3 year fire frequency can restore state 2 to state 1. Longleaf forests accumulate high levels of litter due to the large size and decay resistance of the needles. Care should be exercised when re-introducing fire to this community. Fuel treatments such as raking and/or wetting the area around existing trees and mowing to remove standing fuels might be necessary to prevent mortality of the overstory. In some areas, removal of hardwoods by mechanical or chemical means can hasten restoration (Provencher et al., 2001; Brockway and Outcalt, 2000).

Transition T2A
State 2 to 3

Transition from state 2 to state 3: Continued lack of fire or infrequent burning Continued fire suppression (> 5 year fire return interval) can affect significant changes in vegetation structure and composition in this ecological site. Hardwood encroachment and establishment is outcompeting the remaining longleaf pine. Furthermore, natural regeneration of longleaf pine and the native herbaceous groundcover species is retarded.

Transition T2B
State 2 to 5

Transition from state 2 to state 5: Remove existing hardwoods (and pines if desired), plant longleaf, re-establish native groundcover if necessary, reintroduction of 2-3 year fire frequency After timber removal, site preparation should occur. Coarse woody debris can impede tree planters. Concentrating debris in windrows and piles and burning it is recommended. Unwanted vegetation should be controlled prior to planting to reduce competition for the new stand. This can be accomplished by mechanical and/or chemical methods. Herbicide prescriptions can be developed to target specific species or groups of unwanted vegetation. For example, some herbicides target woody plants, while others kill grasses or legumes. Care should be taken when using herbicides, as further disturbance and herbicide application can be detrimental to any remaining native ground cover. The site should be monitored for the appearance of native groundcover. If herbaceous species do not naturally regenerate, the seed source may have been lost. Native groundcover should be established by planting.

Transition T2C
State 2 to 6

Transition from state 2 to state 6: Clear cut (or hardwood removal), plant pines (longleaf, loblolly, slash), reintroduction of 2-3 year fire frequency After timber removal, site preparation should occur. Coarse woody debris can impede tree planters. Concentrating debris in windrows and piles and burning it is recommended. Unwanted vegetation should be controlled prior to planting to reduce competition for the new stand. This can be accomplished by mechanical and/or chemical methods. Herbicide prescriptions can be developed to target specific species or groups of unwanted vegetation. For example, some herbicides target woody plants, while others kill grasses or legumes. If transitioning to community phase 6.1, longleaf pine should be planted if necessary. If transitioning to community phase 6.2, other pine species should be planted.

Transition T2D
State 2 to 7

Transition from state 2 to state 7: Clear-cut, stump and brush removal, establish crop or pasture

Transition T2E
State 2 to 8

Transition from state 2 to state 8: Although not recommended, it is possible to transition from this state to the Abandoned/Old field state. This would occur upon clear-cutting and abandonment.

Restoration pathway R3A
State 3 to 2

Restoration from state 3 to state 2: Mechanical and chemical removal of hardwoods and unwanted pines (loblolly, slash), planting longleaf pine if necessary, reintroduction of 3-5 year fire return interval. Longleaf forests accumulate high levels of litter because needles are large and decay resistant. High residual fuel loads may be present where longleaf pine occur. If desired longleaf pine trees are still present on the site, care should be exercised when re-introducing fire to this community. Fuel treatments such as raking and/or wetting the area around existing trees and mowing to remove standing fuels might be necessary to prevent mortality of the overstory. Site preparation is important after timber removal. Coarse woody debris can impede tree planters. Concentrating debris in windrows and piles and burning it is recommended. Unwanted vegetation should be controlled prior to planting to reduce competition for the new stand. This can be accomplished by mechanical and/or chemical methods. Herbicide prescriptions can be developed to target specific species or groups of unwanted vegetation. For example, some herbicides target woody plants, while others kill grasses or legumes. Care should be taken when using herbicides to avoid unwanted disturbance and herbicide application to any remaining native ground cover. The site should be monitored for the appearance of native grasses. If herbaceous species do not naturally regenerate, the seed source may have been lost. If native grasses must be planted becuase no seed source is present, the system cannot be restored to state 2, but will resemble the functioning ecosystem of state 5.

Transition T3A
State 3 to 4

Transition from state 3 to state 4: Continued lack of fire or infrequent burning Continued fire suppression results in further significant changes in vegetation structure and composition in this ecological site. Hardwood species, particularly scrub oaks, now dominate the forest mid-story, and herbaceous ground cover is largely absent. This community is unable to carry low intensity fires without drastic chemical or mechanical treatments, or catastrophic fires.

Transition T3B
State 3 to 5

Transition from state 3 to state 5: Remove oaks and other hardwoods, plant longleaf, re-establish native groundcover if necessary, reintroduction of 2-3 year fire frequency After timber removal, site preparation should occur. Coarse woody debris can impede tree planters. Concentrating debris in windrows and piles and burning it is recommended. Unwanted vegetation should be controlled prior to planting to reduce competition for the new stand. This can be accomplished by mechanical and/or chemical methods. Herbicide prescriptions can be developed to target specific species or groups of unwanted vegetation. For example, some herbicides target woody plants, while others kill grasses or legumes. Care should be taken when using herbicides to avoid unwanted disturbance and herbicide application to any remaining native ground cover. The site should be monitored for the appearance of native groundcover. If herbaceous species do not naturally regenerate, the seed source may have been lost. Native groundcover should be established by planting.

Transition T3C
State 3 to 6

Transition from state 3 to state 6: Clear cut (or hardwood removal), plant pines (longleaf, loblolly, slash), re-establish native groundcover if necessary, reintroduction of 2-3 year fire frequency After timber removal, site preparation should occur. Coarse woody debris can impede tree planters. Concentrating debris in windrows and piles and burning it is recommended. Unwanted vegetation should be controlled prior to planting to reduce competition for the new stand. This can be accomplished by mechanical and/or chemical methods. Herbicide prescriptions can be developed to target specific species or groups of unwanted vegetation. For example, some herbicides target woody plants, while others kill grasses or legumes.

Transition T3D
State 3 to 7

Transition from state 3 to state 7: Clear-cut, stump and brush removal, establish crop or pasture

Transition T3E
State 3 to 8

Transition from state 3 to state 8: Although not recommended, it is possible to transition from this state to the Abandoned/Old field State. This would occur upon clear-cutting and abandonment.

Restoration pathway R4A
State 4 to 3

Restoration from state 4 to state 3: Mechanical and chemical removal of hardwoods, establishment of pines if necessary, reintroduction of 3-5 year fire return interval. Site preparation is important after timber removal. Coarse woody debris can impede tree planters. Concentrating debris in windrows and piles and burning it is recommended. Unwanted vegetation should be controlled prior to planting to reduce competition for the new stand. This can be accomplished by mechanical and/or chemical methods. Herbicide prescriptions can be developed to target specific species or groups of unwanted vegetation. For example, some herbicides target woody plants, while others kill grasses or legumes. Care should be taken when using herbicides, as disturbance and herbicide application can be detrimental to any remaining native ground cover. The site should be monitored for the appearance of native groundcover. If herbaceous species do not naturally regenerate, the seed source may have been lost. Native groundcover should be established by planting.

Transition T4A
State 4 to 5

Transition from state 4 to state 5: Hardwood removal (clear-cut, herbicide), longleaf establishment, native groundcover restoration if needed, reintroduction of 2-3 year fire frequency Site preparation is important after timber removal. Coarse woody debris can impede tree planters. Concentrating debris in windrows and piles and burning it is recommended. Unwanted vegetation should be controlled prior to planting to reduce competition for the new stand. This can be accomplished by mechanical and/or chemical methods. Herbicide prescriptions can be developed to target specific species or groups of unwanted vegetation. For example, some herbicides target woody plants, while others kill grasses or legumes. Care should be taken when using herbicides, as disturbance and herbicide application can be detrimental to any remaining native ground cover.

Transition T4B
State 4 to 6

Transition from state 4 to state 6: Hardwood removal (clear-cut, herbicide), plant pines (longleaf, loblolly, slash), reintroduction of 2-3 year fire frequency After timber removal, site preparation should occur. Coarse woody debris can impede tree planters. Concentrating debris in windrows and piles and burning it is recommended. Unwanted vegetation should be controlled prior to planting to reduce competition for the new stand. This can be accomplished by mechanical and/or chemical methods. Herbicide prescriptions can be developed to target specific species or groups of unwanted vegetation. For example, some herbicides target woody plants, while others kill grasses or legumes.

Transition T4C
State 4 to 7

Transition from state 4 to state 7: Clear-cut, stump and brush removal, establish crop or pasture

Transition T4D
State 4 to 8

Transition from state 4 to state 8: Clear cut and abandonment or lack of management

Restoration pathway R5A
State 5 to 1

Restoration from state 5 to state 1: This will require very long-term management (century-scale) in order to achieve an uneven-aged stand. This option is not viable for one generation of ownership to accomplish. In order to achieve the reference state, the stand must be managed to be uneven-aged.

Transition T5A
State 5 to 2

Transition from state 5 to state 2: Lack of fire (fire return interval > 3 years) Fire suppression can significantly change the vegetation structure and composition of this ecological site. Hardwood encroachment results from fire suppression. Furthermore, natural regeneration of longleaf pine and the native herbaceous groundcover species is retarded as fuels build up. However, this transition would be different in that state 2 describes natural longleaf stands. The transition from a planted stand would have different age structure, but the trigger (lack of fire) would be the same. This would cause the result to be most like state 2 except the pines would be even-aged.

Transition T5B
State 5 to 6

Transition from state 5 to state 6: Although it is not recommended to transition from a system that contains native ground cover, it is possible if tree density is too high and shades out the native heliophytic vegetation. If transitioning to community phase 6.1, native ground cover is lost. If transitioning to community phase 6.2, longleaf pine is removed, and native groundcover is lost.

Transition T5C
State 5 to 7

Transition from state 5 to state 7: Clear-cut, stump and brush removal, crop/pasture establishment

Transition T5D
State 5 to 8

Transition from state 5 to state 8: Clear-cut, abandonment

Restoration pathway R6A
State 6 to 5

Restoration from state 6 to state 5: If transitioning from phase 6.1, native ground cover restoration should occur. If transitioning from phase 6.2, longleaf pine needs to be established in addition to native ground cover establishment. This requires removal of other pine species. Site preparation should occur after timber removal. Coarse woody debris can impede tree planters. Concentrating debris in windrows and piles and burning it is recommended. Unwanted vegetation should be controlled prior to planting to reduce competition for the new stand. This can be accomplished by mechanical and/or chemical methods. Herbicide prescriptions can be developed to target specific species or groups of unwanted vegetation. For example, some herbicides target woody plants, while others kill grasses or legumes. Care should be taken when using herbicides to avoid unwanted disturbance and herbicide application to any remaining native ground cover.

Transition T6A
State 6 to 7

Transition from state 6 to state 7: Clear-cut, stump and brush removal, crop/pasture establishment

Transition T6B
State 6 to 8

Transition from State 6 to State 8: Clear-cut, abandonment

Restoration pathway R7B
State 7 to 5

Restoration from State 7 to State 5: Assess site suitability (pH requirements for longleaf pine), specific site preparation (scalping, subsoiling), plant longleaf pine, establish native groundcover This restoration pathway requires specific management. First, many agricultural fields and pastures have received lime applications, which, over time have increased the pH of the soil. It is difficult to successfully establish longleaf pine on sites with a pH higher than 7.0. If pH is not an issue, the pasture grasses and agricultural weed complex will be. Aggressive control of these herbaceous species can be achieved using appropriate herbicides. A technique called scalping has also proved to be beneficial on agricultural lands, particularly pastures. Scalping essentially forms a shallow (2-4”) but wide (30-36”) furrow by peeling the soil back. Scalping is not recommended for wet areas or soils with high clay content because the scalped rows may hold too much water and drown the seedlings. Highly compacted crop land may require sub-soiling prior to planting to break up any overly compacted soil that will inhibit seedling establishment.

Restoration pathway R7A
State 7 to 6

Restoration from State 7 to State 6: Site preparation, longleaf or other pine planting, and reintroduction of 2-3 year fire frequency This restoration pathway requires specific management. First, many agricultural fields and pastures have received lime applications, which, over time have increased the pH of the soil. It is difficult to successfully establish longleaf pine on sites with a pH higher than 7.0. If pH is not an issue, the pasture grasses and agricultural weed complex will be. Aggressive control of these herbaceous species can be achieved using appropriate herbicides. A technique called scalping has also proved to be beneficial on agricultural lands, particularly pastures. Scalping essentially forms a shallow (2-4”) but wide (30-36”) furrow by peeling the soil back. Scalping is not recommended for wet areas or soils with high clay content because the scalped rows may hold too much water and drown the seedlings. Highly compacted crop land may require sub-soiling prior to planting to break up any overly compacted soil that will inhibit seedling establishment.

Transition T7A
State 7 to 8

Transition from State 7 to State 8: Clear-cut, abandonment

Restoration pathway R8A
State 8 to 5

Restoration from State 8 to State 5: Longleaf pine establishment and native groundcover restoration should occur. This requires removal of other pine species. After timber removal, site preparation should occur. Coarse woody debris can impede tree planters. Concentrating debris in windrows and piles and burning it is recommended. Unwanted vegetation should be controlled prior to planting to reduce competition for the new stand. This can be accomplished by mechanical and/or chemical methods. Herbicide prescriptions can be developed to target specific species or groups of unwanted vegetation. For example, some herbicide target woody plants, while others kill grasses or legumes. Care should be taken when using herbicides, as further disturbance and herbicide application can be detrimental to any remaining native ground cover.

Restoration pathway R8B
State 8 to 6

Restoration from State 8 to State 6: Land must be cleared, brush removed, and pines established This requires removal of hardwood and other undesirable species. After timber removal, site preparation should occur. Coarse woody debris can impede tree planters. Concentrating debris in windrows and piles and burning it is recommended. Unwanted vegetation should be controlled prior to planting to reduce competition for the new stand. This can be accomplished by mechanical and/or chemical methods. Herbicide prescriptions can be developed to target specific species or groups of unwanted vegetation. For example, some herbicide target woody plants, while others kill grasses or legumes. Care should be taken when using herbicides, as further disturbance and herbicide application can be detrimental to any remaining native ground cover.

Transition T8A
State 8 to 7

Transition from State 8 to State 7: Land should be cleared and stumped, and crop or pasture established