Ecological dynamics
Caveat: The vegetation information contained in this section and is only provisional, based on concepts, and future projects support validation through field work. *] The vegetation groupings described in this section are based on the terrestrial ecological system classification and vegetation associations developed by NatureServe (Comer 2003) and localized associations provided by the New York Natural Heritage Program (Edinger et al. 2014).
This site covers a broad area and will require significant study to identify the full range of disturbances and plant communities associated with it. Northern hardwoods dominate, particularly yellow birch, sugar maple and beech. However, where soils somewhat shallower or wetter than the typical site concept there is often more red spruce, balsam fire, white birch and eastern hemlock present in the community.
Treethrow and logging are the most common disturbances on this site. The site is resilient following these disturbances and succeeds through an herbaceous and shrubby phase prior to tree establishment and eventual return to the reference community. The young forest stands include several species not typically dominant in the reference community, including pin cherry, white birch, aspen, balsam fir, etc.
On gentler slopes, this site may be cultivated for crop or pasture. When cropland or pastureland management ceases, the site either returns to northern hardwoods or may transition to a white pine forest. Once white pine is established, it tends to form a single age stand with low diversity and little understory.
State 1
Reference State (minimally-managed)
This site covers a broad area and will require significant study to identify the full range of disturbances and plant communities associated with it. Northern hardwoods dominate, particularly yellow birch, sugar maple and beech. However, where soils somewhat shallower or wetter than the typical site concept there is often more red spruce, balsam fire, white birch and eastern hemlock present in the community.
On gentler slopes, this site may be cultivated for crop or pasture. When cropland or pastureland management ceases, the site either returns to northern hardwoods or may transition to a white pine forest. Once white pine is established, it tends to form a single age stand with low diversity and little understory.
Resilience management. Treethrow and logging are the most common disturbances on this site. The site is resilient following these disturbances and succeeds through an herbaceous and shrubby phase prior to tree establishment and eventual return to the reference community. The young forest stands include several species not typically dominant in the reference community, including pin cherry, white birch, aspen, balsam fir, etc.
Dominant resource concerns
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Plant productivity and health
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Plant structure and composition
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Plant pest pressure
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Terrestrial habitat for wildlife and invertebrates
Community 1.1
Spruce - Northern Hardwood Forest
A mixed forest that occurs on lower mountain slopes and upper margins of flats on glacial till. This is a broadly defined community with several regional and edaphic variants.
Codominant trees are red spruce (Picea rubens), sugar maple (Acer saccharum), American beech (Fagus grandifolia), yellow birch (Betula alleghaniensis), and red maple (Acer rubrum), with scattered balsam fir (Abies balsamea). Striped maple (Acer pensylvanicum) and mountain maple (A. spicatum) are common subcanopy trees.
Characteristic shrubs are hobblebush (Viburnum lantanoides), American fly honeysuckle (Lonicera canadensis), and Canada yew (Taxus canadensis).
Characteristic groundlayer plants are common wood-sorrel (Oxalis montana), common wood fern (Dryopteris intermedia), shining fir clubmoss (Huperzia lucidula), wild sarsaparilla (Aralia nudicaulis), blue bead-lily (Clintonia borealis), goldthread (Coptis trifolia), bunchberry (Cornus canadensis), Canada mayflower (Maianthemum canadense), Indian cucumber-root (Medeola virginiana), and twisted stalk (Streptopus roseus).
(Edinger et al. 2014)
Resilience management. New York Natural Heritage Program State Rank: S3/S4
S3- Typically 21 to 100 occurrences, limited acreage, or miles of stream in New York State.
S4- Apparently secure in New York State.
Dominant resource concerns
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Plant productivity and health
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Plant structure and composition
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Plant pest pressure
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Terrestrial habitat for wildlife and invertebrates
Community 1.2
Beech - Maple Mesic Forest
Anorthern hardwood forest with sugar maple (Acer saccharum) and American beech (Fagus grandifolia) codominant. This is a broadly defined community type with several regional and edaphic variants. These forests occur on moist, well-drained, usually acid soils. Common associates are yellow birch (Betula alleghaniensis), white ash (Fraxinus americana), hop hornbeam (Ostrya virginiana), and red maple (Acer rubrum).
Characteristic small trees or tall shrubs are hobblebush (Viburnum lantanoides), American hornbeam (Carpinus caroliniana), striped maple (Acer pensylvanicum), witch hazel (Hamamelis virginiana), and alternate-leaved dogwood (Cornus alternifolia). Typically there is also an abundance of tree seedlings, especially of sugar maple; American beech and sugar maple saplings are often the most abundant “shrubs” and small trees. Eastern hemlock (Tsuga canadensis) may be present at a low density. In the Adirondacks a few red spruce (Picea rubens) may also be present.
Characteristic herbs are woodferns (Dryopteris intermedia, D. carthusiana, D. marginalis), Canada mayflower (Maianthemum canadense), Christmas fern (Polystichum acrostichoides), white wood aster (Eurybia divaricata), common wood-sorrel (Oxalis montana), Pennsylvania sedge (Carex pensylvanica), jack-in-the-pulpit (Arisaema triphyllum), sarsaparilla (Aralia nudicaulis), shining fir clubmoss (Huperzia lucidula), bearded short-husk (Brachyelytrum erectum), white snakeroot (Ageratina altissima var. altissima), violets (Viola spp.), star flower (Trientalis borealis), partridge berry (Mitchella repens), Solomon's-seals (Polygonatum pubescens, P. biflorum), foam flower (Tiarella cordifolia), false Solomon's seal (Maianthemum racemosum), whorled aster (Oclemena acuminata), Indian cucumber-root (Medeola virginiana), wreath goldenrod (Solidago caesia), trilliums (Trillium undulatum, T. erectum), mayapple (Podophyllum peltatum), troutlily (Erythronium americanum), and sessile-leaved bellwort (Uvularia sessilifolia). In forests that have American beech as a codominant tree, beech-drops (Epifagus virginiana) are common. Hay-scented fern (Dennstaedtia punctilobula) may be common in canopy gaps. There are many spring ephemerals which bloom before the canopy trees leaf out.
(Edinger et al. 2014)
Resilience management. New York Natural Heritage Program State Rank: S4- Apparently secure in New York State.
Sugar maple leaf litter is high in nitrogen relative to lignin and thus decomposes rapidly, increasing the nutrient pool in the soil organic layer. Structure and composition of the forest are maintained primarily by single small tree-fall gaps. Yellow birch is maintained in the system by mineral soils on "tip up mounds."
Dominant resource concerns
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Plant productivity and health
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Plant structure and composition
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Plant pest pressure
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Terrestrial habitat for wildlife and invertebrates
State 2
Semi-natural State
Shifts in ecological site composition, functionality, and dynamics driven by natural disturbances, processes, and pressures (may have some anthropogenic drivers). More research is needed to determine the extent of the Semi-natural state associated with this ecological site.
Dominant resource concerns
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Ponding and flooding
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Plant productivity and health
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Plant structure and composition
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Plant pest pressure
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Wildfire hazard from biomass accumulation
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Terrestrial habitat for wildlife and invertebrates
Community 2.1
Invasiveness and Biological Introductions
Introduction of invasive species, pathogens, and/or pests resulting in shifts in ecological site composition, functionality, and dynamics. More research is needed to determine the extent of these effects on the semi-natural state associated with this ecological site.
Dominant resource concerns
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Plant productivity and health
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Plant structure and composition
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Plant pest pressure
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Terrestrial habitat for wildlife and invertebrates
Community 2.2
Pine - Northern Hardwood Forest
A mixed forest that occurs on gravelly outwash plains, delta sands, eskers, and dry lake sands. The dominant trees are white pine (Pinus strobus) and red pine (P. resinosa); these are mixed with scattered paper birch (Betula papyrifera) and quaking aspen (Populus tremuloides). In some stands there is an admixture of other northern hardwoods and conifers such as yellow birch (Betula alleghaniensis), red maple (Acer rubrum), balsam fir (Abies balsamea), and red spruce (Picea rubens); these are never common in a pine-northern hardwood forest.
Characteristic shrubs are blueberries (Vaccinium angustifolium, V. myrtilloides), sheep laurel (Kalmia angustifolia), wild raisin (Viburnum nudum var. cassinoides), and serviceberry (Amelanchier canadensis).
Characteristic herbs are bracken fern (Pteridium aquilinum var. latiusculum), wintergreen (Gaultheria procumbens), trailing arbutus (Epigaea repens), cow-wheat (Melampyrum lineare), Canada mayflower (Maianthemum canadense), bunchberry (Cornus canadensis), star flower (Trientalis borealis), blue bead-lily (Clintonia borealis), painted trillium (Trillium undulatum), spreading ricegrass (Oryzopsis asperifolia), and Pennsylvania sedge (Carex pensylvanica). Mosses and lichens may be common to abundant, especially the mosses big red stem moss (Pleurozium schreberi), Brachythecium spp., and Dicranum polysetum.
(Edinger et al. 2014)
Resilience management. New York Natural Heritage State Rank: S4- Apparently secure in New York State.
State 3
Cultural State
Shifts in ecological site composition, functionality, and dynamics that are primary driven by anthropogenic disturbances and pressures (may have some associated natural drivers). More research is needed to determine the extent of the cultural state associated with this ecological site.
Dominant resource concerns
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Plant productivity and health
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Plant structure and composition
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Terrestrial habitat for wildlife and invertebrates
Community 3.1
Cropland
Site altered to support crop cultivation and production
Community 3.2
Grass/Hay Land
Site altered for grazing grass or hay production.
Transition T1A
State 1 to 2
climate change, dominant hardwood loss, introduction of invasive species, pests, and pathogens
| Monitoring and Evaluation |
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Transition T1B
State 1 to 3
landscape alteration, logging, mechanical soil disturbance, landscape clearing, seeding, planting
| Cover Crop |
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| Land Clearing |
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| Precision Land Forming |
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| Irrigation Land Leveling |
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| Land Smoothing |
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| Grazing Land Mechanical Treatment |
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| Planned Grazing System |
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| Forest Land Management |
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| Conversion of cropped land to grass-based agriculture |
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Restoration pathway R2A
State 2 to 1
management of invasive species, pests, and pathogens, restoration of key native plant species, restoration of terrestrial habitat, white pine thinning
| Restoration and Management of Rare and Declining Habitats |
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| Upland Wildlife Habitat Management |
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| Early Successional Habitat Development/Management |
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| Restoration and Management of Natural Ecosystems |
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| Native Plant Community Restoration and Management |
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| Invasive Plant Species Control |
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| Pathogen Management |
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| Invasive Species Pest Management |
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| Precision Pest Control Application |
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| Restoration and Management of Rare or Declining Habitats |
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| Multi-species Native Perennials for Biomass/Wildlife Habitat |
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| Establish pollinator habitat |
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| Hardwood Crop Tree Release |
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| Habitat Development for Beneficial Insects for Pest Management |
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| Biological suppression and other non-chemical techniques to manage brush, weeds and invasive species |
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| Biological suppression and other non-chemical techniques to manage herbaceous weeds invasive species |
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| Monitoring and Evaluation |
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Transition T2A
State 2 to 3
landscape alteration, logging, mechanical soil disturbance, landscape clearing, seeding, planting
| Cover Crop |
|
| Land Clearing |
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| Precision Land Forming |
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| Irrigation Land Leveling |
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| Land Smoothing |
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| Forage Harvest Management |
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| Planned Grazing System |
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| Monitor key grazing areas to improve grazing management |
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| Conversion of cropped land to grass-based agriculture |
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Restoration pathway R3B
State 3 to 1
seeding, planting, restoration of compacted soil, establishment of key native plant species
| Critical Area Planting |
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| Restoration and Management of Rare and Declining Habitats |
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| Upland Wildlife Habitat Management |
|
| Early Successional Habitat Development/Management |
|
| Restoration and Management of Natural Ecosystems |
|
| Native Plant Community Restoration and Management |
|
| Restoration and Management of Rare or Declining Habitats |
|
| Multi-species Native Perennials for Biomass/Wildlife Habitat |
|
| Monitoring and Evaluation |
|
Restoration pathway R3A
State 3 to 2
seeding, planting, restoration of compacted soil, establishment of key native plant species
| Critical Area Planting |
|
| Restoration and Management of Rare and Declining Habitats |
|
| Upland Wildlife Habitat Management |
|
| Early Successional Habitat Development/Management |
|
| Restoration and Management of Natural Ecosystems |
|
| Native Plant Community Restoration and Management |
|
| Restoration and Management of Rare or Declining Habitats |
|
| Multi-species Native Perennials for Biomass/Wildlife Habitat |
|
| Monitoring and Evaluation |
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