Ecological dynamics
[Caveat: The vegetation information contained in this section and is only provisional, based on concepts, and future projects support validation through field work. *] The vegetation groupings described in this section are based on the terrestrial ecological system classification and vegetation associations developed by NatureServe (Comer 2003) and localized associations provided by the New York Natural Heritage Program (Edinger et al. 2014).
This site is dominated by northern hardwoods and can be co-dominant with conifers, particularly red spruce. Yellow birch is a good site indicator, and red and sugar maples are often dominant.
Treethrow and logging are the most common disturbances on this site. The site is resilient following these disturbances and succeeds through an herbaceous and shrubby phase prior to tree establishment and eventual return to the reference community. The young forest stands include several species not typically dominant in the reference community, including grey and white birch, aspen, balsam fir, etc. After about 80-100 years these species die out and the reference community species retain dominance.
This site may be cultivated for crop or pasture. When cropland or pastureland management ceases, the site either returns to northern hardwoods or may transition to a white pine forest. Once white pine is established, it tends to form a single age stand with low diversity and little understory.
State 1
Reference State (minimally-managed)
This site occurs on gentle foot and toe slopes (0-15%) at the base of watersheds where water and nutrients accumulate near slope breaks. Soils are underlain by a densely compacted till layer within 43 inches of the soil surface, which perches water and nutrients in the plant rooting zone. Occasionally groundwater seeps out at the surface, leaving rivulets as useful site indicators. The resulting plant community is highly-productive and commonly dominated by northern hardwoods, though red spruce and balsam fir are often abundant, particularly in flatter areas. Abundant yellow birch is a good indicator of this site.
Characteristics and indicators. This site is dominated by northern hardwoods and can be co-dominant with conifers, particularly red spruce. Yellow birch is a good site indicator, and red and sugar maples are often dominant.
Resilience management. Treethrow and logging are the most common disturbances on this site. The site is resilient following these disturbances and succeeds through an herbaceous and shrubby phase prior to tree establishment and eventual return to the reference community. The young forest stands include several species not typically dominant in the reference community, including grey and white birch, aspen, balsam fir, etc. After about 80-100 years these species die out and the reference community species retain dominance.
This site may be cultivated for crop or pasture. When cropland or pastureland management ceases, the site either returns to northern hardwoods or may transition to a white pine forest. Once white pine is established, it tends to form a single age stand with low diversity and little understory.
Dominant resource concerns
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Plant productivity and health
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Plant structure and composition
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Plant pest pressure
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Wildfire hazard from biomass accumulation
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Terrestrial habitat for wildlife and invertebrates
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Aquatic habitat for fish and other organisms
Community 1.1
Spruce - Northern Hardwood Forest
A mixed forest that occurs on lower mountain slopes and upper margins of flats on glacial till.
Codominant trees are red spruce (Picea rubens), sugar maple (Acer saccharum), American beech (Fagus grandifolia), yellow birch (Betula alleghaniensis), and red maple (Acer rubrum), with scattered balsam fir (Abies balsamea). Striped maple (Acer pensylvanicum) and mountain maple (A. spicatum) are common subcanopy trees.
Characteristic shrubs are hobblebush (Viburnum lantanoides), American fly honeysuckle (Lonicera canadensis), and Canada yew (Taxus canadensis).
Characteristic groundlayer plants are common wood-sorrel (Oxalis montana), common wood fern (Dryopteris intermedia), shining fir clubmoss (Huperzia lucidula), wild sarsaparilla (Aralia nudicaulis), blue bead-lily (Clintonia borealis), goldthread (Coptis trifolia), bunchberry (Cornus canadensis), Canada mayflower (Maianthemum canadense), Indian cucumber-root (Medeola virginiana), and twisted stalk (Streptopus roseus).
(Edinger et al. 2014)
Resilience management. New York Natural Heritage Program State Rank: S3/S4
S3- Typically 21 to 100 occurrences, limited acreage, or miles of stream in New York State.
S4- Apparently secure in New York State.
Dominant resource concerns
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Plant productivity and health
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Plant structure and composition
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Plant pest pressure
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Wildfire hazard from biomass accumulation
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Terrestrial habitat for wildlife and invertebrates
Community 1.2
Hemlock Northern Hardwood Forest
A mixed forest that typically occurs on middle to lower slopes of ravines, on cool, mid-elevation slopes, and on moist, well-drained sites at the margins of swamps.
In any one stand, eastern hemlock (Tsuga canadensis) is codominant with any one to three of the following: sugar maple (Acer saccharum), red maple (A. rubrum), yellow birch (Betula alleghaniensis), black birch (B. lenta), red oak (Quercus rubra), American beech (Fagus grandifolia), white ash (Fraxinus americana), chestnut oak (Quercus montana), white oak (Q. alba), white pine (Pinus strobus), Other trees may include hop hornbeam (Ostrya virginiana), black cherry (Prunus serotina), and basswood (Tilia americana). The relative cover of eastern hemlock is quite variable, ranging from nearly pure stands in some steep ravines to as little as 20% of the canopy cover. Striped maple (Acer pensylvanicum) is often prominent as a mid-story tree.
The shrub layer may be sparse and typically includes saplings of canopy trees. Characteristic shrubs are witch hazel (Hamamelis virginiana), hobblebush (Viburnum lantanoides), maple-leaf viburnum (Viburnum acerifolium), lowbush blueberry (Vaccinium pallidum), and raspberries (Rubus spp.). In some ravines, especially in the southern part of the state, rosebay (Rhododendron maximum) forms a dense subcanopy or tall shrub layer.
Canopy cover can be quite dense, resulting in low light intensities on the forest floor and hence a relatively sparse groundlayer. Characteristic groundlayer herbs include woodferns (Dryopteris marginalis, D. intermedia D. campyloptera), Christmas fern (Polystichum acrostichoides), Canada mayflower (Maianthemum canadense), white wood aster (Eurybia divaricata), sarsaparilla (Aralia nudicaulis), partridge berry (Mitchella repens), common wood-sorrel (Oxalis montana), jack-in-the-pulpit (Arisaema triphyllum), star flower (Trientalis borealis), lady fern (Athyrium filix-femina var. asplenioides), and Pennsylvania sedge (Carex pensylvanica).
Other plants include Indian cucumber-root (Medeola virginiana), sessile-leaved bellwort (Uvularia sessilifolia), shining fir clubmoss (Huperzia lucidula), foamflower (Tiarella cordifolia), round-leaf violet (Viola rotundifolia), twisted stalk (Streptopus roseus), purple trillium (Trillium erectum), and white cushion moss (Leucobryum glaucum). In forests that have American beech as a codominant tree, beech-drops (Epifagus virginiana) is a common herb. Indian-pipe (Monotropa uniflora) and American pinesap (M. hypopithys) are occasionally found in low light examples. Hay-scented fern (Dennstaedtia punctilobula) and New York fern (Thelypteris noveboracensis) may be common in canopy gaps.
(Edinger et al. 2014)
Resilience management. New York Natural Heritage Program State Rank: S4- Apparently secure in New York State.
Dominant resource concerns
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Plant productivity and health
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Plant structure and composition
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Plant pest pressure
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Wildfire hazard from biomass accumulation
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Terrestrial habitat for wildlife and invertebrates
State 2
Semi-natural State
Shifts in ecological site composition, functionality, and dynamics driven by natural disturbances, processes, and pressures (may have some anthropogenic drivers). More research is needed to determine the extent of the Semi-natural state associated with this ecological site.
Dominant resource concerns
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Plant productivity and health
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Plant structure and composition
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Plant pest pressure
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Terrestrial habitat for wildlife and invertebrates
Community 2.1
Invasiveness and Biological Introductions
Introduction of invasive species, pathogens, and/or pests resulting in shifts in ecological site composition, functionality, and dynamics. More research is needed to determine the extent of these effects on the semi-natural state associated with this ecological site.
Dominant resource concerns
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Plant productivity and health
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Plant structure and composition
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Plant pest pressure
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Terrestrial habitat for wildlife and invertebrates
Community 2.2
Successional Northern Hardwood Forest
A hardwood or mixed forest that occurs on sites that have been cleared or otherwise disturbed.
Characteristic trees and shrubs include any of the following: quaking aspenn (Populus tremuloides), big-tooth aspenn (P. grandidentata), balsam poplarn (P. balsamifera), paper birchn (Betula papyrifera), gray birchn (B. populifolia), pin cherryn (Prunus pensylvanica), black cherry (P. serotina), red maple (Acer rubrum), white pine (Pinus strobus), with lesser amounts of white ash (Fraxinus americana), green ash (F. pennsylvanica), and American elm (Ulmus americana). This is a broadly defined community and several seral and regional variants are known.
(Edinger et al. 2014)
Dominant resource concerns
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Compaction
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Plant productivity and health
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Plant structure and composition
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Terrestrial habitat for wildlife and invertebrates
State 3
Cultural State
Shifts in ecological site composition, functionality, and dynamics that are primary driven by anthropogenic disturbances and pressures (may have some associated natural drivers). More research is needed to determine the extent of the cultural state associated with this ecological site.
Dominant resource concerns
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Plant productivity and health
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Plant structure and composition
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Terrestrial habitat for wildlife and invertebrates
Community 3.1
Cropland
Site altered to support crop cultivation and production
Community 3.2
Grass/Hay Land
Site altered for grazing grass or hay production.
Dominant resource concerns
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Plant productivity and health
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Plant structure and composition
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Terrestrial habitat for wildlife and invertebrates
Transition T1A
State 1 to 2
climate change, old growth hardwood loss, canopy opened, introduction of invasive species, pests, and pathogens
| Hardwood Crop Tree Release |
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| Monitoring and Evaluation |
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Transition T1B
State 1 to 3
landscape alteration, logging, mechanical soil disturbance, landscape clearing, seeding, planting
| Cover Crop |
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| Land Clearing |
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| Precision Land Forming |
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| Irrigation Land Leveling |
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| Land Smoothing |
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| Prescribed Grazing |
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| Grazing Land Mechanical Treatment |
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| Forest Land Management |
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| Monitoring and Evaluation |
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Restoration pathway R2A
State 2 to 1
management of invasive species, pests, and pathogens, restoration of key native plant species, restoration of terrestrial habitat, white pine thinning
| Critical Area Planting |
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| Restoration and Management of Rare and Declining Habitats |
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| Upland Wildlife Habitat Management |
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| Early Successional Habitat Development/Management |
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| Restoration and Management of Natural Ecosystems |
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| Native Plant Community Restoration and Management |
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| Invasive Plant Species Control |
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| Pathogen Management |
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| Multi-species Native Perennials for Biomass/Wildlife Habitat |
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| Biological suppression and other non-chemical techniques to manage brush, weeds and invasive species |
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| Biological suppression and other non-chemical techniques to manage herbaceous weeds invasive species |
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| Monitoring and Evaluation |
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Transition T2A
State 2 to 3
landscape alteration, logging, mechanical soil disturbance, landscape clearing, seeding, planting
| Cover Crop |
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| Land Clearing |
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| Precision Land Forming |
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| Irrigation Land Leveling |
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| Land Smoothing |
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| Grazing Land Mechanical Treatment |
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| Spoil Spreading |
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| Planned Grazing System |
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| Prescribed Grazing |
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| Prescribed Forestry |
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| Grazing management to improve wildlife habitat |
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| Harvest hay in a manner that allows wildlife to flush and escape |
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| Resource-Conserving Crop Rotation |
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| Conversion of cropped land to grass-based agriculture |
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| Monitoring and Evaluation |
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Restoration pathway R3B
State 3 to 1
seeding, planting, restoration of compacted soil, establishment of key native plant species
| Critical Area Planting |
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| Restoration and Management of Rare and Declining Habitats |
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| Upland Wildlife Habitat Management |
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| Early Successional Habitat Development/Management |
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| Restoration and Management of Natural Ecosystems |
|
| Native Plant Community Restoration and Management |
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| Restoration and Management of Rare or Declining Habitats |
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| Multi-species Native Perennials for Biomass/Wildlife Habitat |
|
| Monitoring and Evaluation |
|
Restoration pathway R3A
State 3 to 2
seeding, planting, restoration of compacted soil, establishment of key native plant species
| Critical Area Planting |
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| Restoration and Management of Rare and Declining Habitats |
|
| Upland Wildlife Habitat Management |
|
| Early Successional Habitat Development/Management |
|
| Restoration and Management of Natural Ecosystems |
|
| Native Plant Community Restoration and Management |
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| Multi-species Native Perennials for Biomass/Wildlife Habitat |
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| Habitat Development for Beneficial Insects for Pest Management |
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| Monitoring and Evaluation |
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