Physiographic features

The ecological site is typically located on forested flats in MLRA 144B in Maine. Aspect is not a factor. Slope is typically from 0 to 3 percent, with some sites ranging up to a high of 8 percent slope, and depth to a seasonal high water table is usually less than 12 inches. Months when the highest water table is likely to occur include January, February, March, April, May, June, October, November, and December. These soils are not subject to flooding or ponding, but can occur adjacent to seasonally ponded, very poorly drained sites. These sites are found from 0 to 900 feet in elevation. Hydrologic group is D.

Table 2. Representative physiographic features

Climatic features

The climate is humid and temperate and is characterized by warm summers and cold winters. Precipitation generally is evenly distributed throughout the year. Near the coast, it is slightly lower in summer. In inland areas, it is slightly higher in spring and fall. Rainfall occurs during high-intensity, convective thunderstorms in summer. In winter, most of the precipitation occurs as moderate-intensity storms (northeasters) that produce large amounts of rain or snow. Heavy snowfalls commonly occur late in winter. Temperatures and the length of the freeze-free period increase from north to south and closer to the coast.

This major land resource area (MLRA) covers four states and may have substantial climate variability among locations: Maine (56 percent), New Hampshire (22 percent), Vermont (14 percent), Massachusetts (6 percent), Connecticut (1 percent), and New York (1 percent).

Table 3. Representative climatic features

Climate stations used

• (1) ACADIA NP [USC00170100], Bar Harbor, ME

• (2) LINCOLN SAN DIST WTP [USC00174683], Blue Hill, ME

• (3) PORT CLYDE [USC00176881], Tenants Harbor, ME

• (4) WEST ROCKPORT 1 NNW [USC00179593], Rockport, ME

• (5) EASTPORT [USC00172426], Eastport, ME

• (6) ROBBINSTON [USC00177238], Robbinston, ME

• (7) ELLSWORTH [USC00172620], Ellsworth, ME

• (8) BELFAST [USC00170480], Belfast, ME

• (9) WESTPORT ISLAND [USC00179547], Wiscasset, ME

Influencing water features

This site is influenced mainly by seasonal perched subsurface water. The dominant source of water is precipitation and inflow from surrounding landscapes. The water table is within 12 inches of the surface October through June. Permeability is moderate and moderately slow in the surface and subsurface horizons, and slow and very slow in the underlying material. Rainfall averages between a low of 31 inches and a high of 54 inches per year. Most rain and snow occur between October and June. Runoff class is low and medium. Water drains from these wetlands through overland flow, evapotranspiration, and seepage to ground water. This site is considered a “wetland” by USDA National Food Security Act and Corps of Engineers wetland delineation standards, as it meets all the hydric (seasonally water-saturated) soil, hydric plants, and wetland hydrology criteria. This site is typically considered a “mineral soil flat” wetland under the Hydrogeomorphic (HGM) Wetland Classification System, but may be a "slope" wetland on higher slopes in its range.

Soil features

The soils of this site are characterized by high percentages of silt and clay and low or non-existent volumes of rock fragments, which are confined to the A, Eg, and Bg soil profile or on the surface. The soils are poorly drained, and forested sites have thin (less than 20 cm thick) surfaces of highly decomposed organic matter derived primarily from woody fragments. Parent material is silty and clayey glaciomarine, or glaciolacustrine deposits.
Though the soil is commonly free of rock fragments, a few pedons contain up to 3 percent gravel. Stones are usually absent from the surface, but in some areas stone cover can be as high as 3 percent.

The soils of this site are olive gray, very deep silt loams, or silty clay loams, with silty clay loam, silty clay, or clay in the deeper horizons. The minimum relative value of clay in the surface mineral horizon is 25 percent and the maximum is 28 percent. The minimum relative value of clay in the top 20 inches is 25 percent and the maximum is 40 percent. Stone fragments sometime occur in the profile in the A, Eg, and Bg horizons. Bedrock sometimes occurs in the lower part of the soil profile, or as outcrops on the soil surface, but not to the extent that they impede the production of native vegetation. On unaltered sites, pit and mound topography may be present, with drier or wetter soils present as minor components.

The poor drainage class and the silty and clayey soil textures have the most influence on plant community composition.

The major soil component that represents the soil features for this ecological site description is Scantic silt loam, a Fine, illitic, nonacid, frigid Typic Epiaquepts.

Table 4. Representative soil features

Animal community

Wildlife Habitat General Information
Reference Site
The dense canopy of the reference site provides for a deeper litter layer, and a darker, cooler, moisture microenvironment on the forest floor, where animals are less subject to extremes in temperature, solar radiation, wind speed, humidity, rain throughfall , snow accumulation, and predation. Because of the dense canopy, this site has less diversity of vertical structure, which is a very important wildlife habitat component. On the other hand, the larger amounts of dead standing and dead downed debris, which make small openings and unique habitat, improves the diversity of vertical structure.

This reference site typically occurs in a riparian zone, which is considered one of the most productive wildlife habitats in Maine. Greater availability of water to plants, in combination with the deeper soil, increases plant production and diversity, and generally produces more food and cover for wildlife. This site supports a higher concentration of animals, including tree-nesting waterfowl, such as wood duck, and other birds, as well as semiaquatic animals such as beaver, mink, and moose. Large pines, when present, may provide important nesting and loafing sites for bald eagles and osprey. Upland mammals such as deer frequently use this site for travel corridors and feeding areas. In southern Maine’s developing landscape, this site together with other wetland-type sites often form the nucleus of large forest blocks and a network of travel corridors that are critical to many species (Bryan, 2004). This site may also provide early sources of green vegetation, earthworms, and insects to sustain early migrants such as robins and woodcock, especially after late snowfalls. This site may be important in the spring and early-summer diets of black bears, skunks, raccoons, and otters (Flatebo, Foss and Pelletier, 1999).

Quite a few of these sites are narrow and linear in shape because they occur in riparian areas, rather than wide patches as in typical floodplain forests, so they may have more “edge” to them. These wetland edges attract a different variety of wildlife than larger expanses of wetland forest.

Due to the general location and soil features of this reference site, it is one of the ecological sites most at risk of being converted to non-forested uses. Animal species most at risk from forest conversion are habitat specialists. Amphibians and reptiles that require this type of habitat are at risk for loss and severe reductions of species on these sites throughout MLRA 144B. Mammals that require this type of habitat are at risk for loss and severe reductions of species, especially on these sites in southern parts of MLRA 144B.

Rare Species
Western reference sites in Maine often provide habitat in which the state-threatened spotted turtles hibernate. If wet sphagnum hummocks are present, four-toed salamanders, a species of special concern, may breed and overwinter in this site. It should be noted that rare plants and natural plant communities have no legal status for protection in Maine.

Vernal and Ephemeral Pools
At this reference site, with its water table located at or just below the ground’s surface (less than 12 inches) between October and June and its tendency to be interspersed or adjacent to depressional ecological sites, standing water may be visible only for a day or two, up to a few weeks after snowmelt or immediately following heavy rains. This standing water is known as vernal (springtime) and ephemeral pools, respectively, and they do not contain fish. Many frogs and salamanders require such temporary habitat specifically for breeding and egg laying. Types of amphibians and reptiles often vary from one site to another due to differences in adjacent habitat type, canopy cover, and past land use. They also provide drinking sites for many birds and mammals and often provide unfrozen sites around which early spring arrivals of woodcock can probe for food (Hobson, Barclay and Broderick, 1993). At this site reptiles and amphibians breed or feed. Other fauna includes aquatic insects, and other invertebrates such as fairy shrimp, fingernail clams, and snails. Mink, great blue heron, and wood turtle visit these sites to feed, and numerous upland species of birds and mammals visit vernal pools to drink, bathe, and forage. A typical home range area for amphibians and reptiles is a 500-foot radius around the pool. This reference site provides a moist forest floor with loose, deep litter, downed woody debris, and patches of canopy shade, which are important for dispersal, migration, foraging, and hibernation of amphibians breeding in vernal pools. These pools only occur in the forested states of this site.

Pit and Mound Microtopography
Pits occur where trees with shallow roots have uprooted and pulled up soil and the mounds develop from the rotting tree roots, stumps, and logs. This pit and mound structure influences the moisture, temperature, organic matter, and nutrients, which leads to a more diverse animal community. This feature only occurs in the mature reference state, and may be retained, if harvested sustainably.

Snags and Cavity Trees
In Maine, the total number of live and snag trees (=15.0 inches dbh) increased in 2008 by almost 3.1 million trees while the total number of live and snag trees (=21.0 inches dbh) increased by more than 1.05 million on Maine’s forestland. The number of live and snag trees (=21.0 inches dbh) increased on a per-acre basis in Cumberland, Sagadahoc, and Androscoggin counties (USDA, Forest Service, 2010). This reference site typically has at least one or two large standing dead trees (snags) and cavity trees (live or partially live trees) that can be used by a variety of birds and mammals for perches, nest and roost holes, dens, and foraging sites. See Wildlife Specific Information for the Reference Site to review individual wildlife species requirements on type and size of snags and cavity trees. White pine and quaking aspen are the major species used because they provide the appropriate size class at this site. Large snags and cavity trees generally last longer and can be used by both large and small birds and mammals. Larger snags also provide more thermal insulation, protection from predators, perches, and will persist longer in the forest (Flatebo, Foss and Pelletier, 1999). The state of decay is important as well and this site typically has more soft snags.

Downed Woody Debris
The multiple characteristics of downed woody debris on this reference site, including physical distribution, size, amount, and degree and stage of decay, provide habitat for a wide variety of animals, macroorganisms (e.g. earthworms and beetles) and microorganisms (e.g. millipedes, ants, springtails, mites, nematodes, and mycorrhizal fungi). The larger debris, which occurs on this site depending on the stage and degree of decay, provides shelter and foraging sites for a wide variety of amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals. Many other organisms, including microscopic bacteria and fungi, also use this site. On this site, the downed woody debris provides a source of cover, particularly winter cover. This is good because there is a lack of substantial understory plants due to the dense canopy cover. Most of Maine’s forests have more than 500 cubic feet per acre of coarse woody debris (USDA, Forest Service, 2010).

Harvested sites may contain more of the finer-size downed woody debris and less coarser-size debris. If it has been harvested for biomass/whole-tree harvest, it will have virtually no downed woody debris at all.

Cleared sites will also not have any downed woody debris and thus would not provide any suitable habitat for macro and microorganisms.

Forest Litter and Moss
This reference site typically has an abundance of forest litter and moss which provides foraging and shelter sites for a variety of amphibians, reptiles, birds, and small mammals. Harvested and Invaded sites will have a lot less moss, somewhat less litter, and possibly some bare ground so this type of habitat will be reduced and have a less diverse amount of wildlife using it. Cleared sites will have no moss and a very reduced amount or no forest litter to provide habitat for wildlife.

Gaps in the Forest Canopy
This reference site typically contains small (< 0.1 Acre) natural gaps in the canopy due to the death of large mature trees. In these temporary natural openings, sun-loving plant species can grow and provide more complex vertical structure to the site which attracts more wildlife, especially small birds.

Gaps occur in the harvested and invaded states, but they are usually greater than 0.1 acre in size. The harvested and invaded states will provide a larger area of young trees and shrubs that will temporarily attract wildlife that require a younger forest for food and cover. Wildlife such as moose and woodcock are attracted to these sites for their preferred food.

Wildlife Specific Information for the Reference Site

The following species are described because they may typically use this ecological site for foraging or cover. Information on each species provides a very brief description of what parts of this site they use and why. Most of the information, unless otherwise indicated, is from DeGraaf and Yamasaki (2000) New England Wildlife: Habitat, Natural History and Distribution and in DeGraaf et al. (2007) Technical Guide to Forest Wildlife Habitat Management in New England.

Amphibians & Reptiles: This site provides the cool, moist forested habitat that supports a variety of amphibians and reptiles. Amphibians need to keep their skin moist. Salamanders and their prey, notably invertebrates, may use downed woody debris, moss, and organic matter (duff) on this site extensively. In particular, they are three-dimensional habitat users, going down through the various soil horizons using root channels and moist areas below ground. The small forest openings or gaps may be used by turtles for basking.

Spotted salamander (Ambystoma maculatum) – This site may be preferred breeding habitat and utilized in winter because it prefers mesic mixed woods with semi-permanent water for breeding.

Four-toed salamander (Hemidactylium scutatum) – This site may be primary habitat because this species of state special concern prefers an abundance of sphagnum moss. It lays its eggs in mossy cavities and adults live in wooded or open areas adjacent to forested wetlands with sphagnum depressions, sphagnum ponds, sphagnum drainageways, swamps, or bogs.

Spotted turtle (Clemmys guttata) – This state-threatened species utilizes this site only in the non-breeding season to hibernate. This species spends most of its time working across upland habitats adjacent to forest and non-forest wetlands as well as time in water.

Birds:
Wood duck (Aix sponsa) – This site may be preferred breeding habitat if trees are at least 16 inches diameter breast height (dbh) with large cavities and 4-inch diameter entrance holes. This species needs breeding and feeding habitat from saplings through large sawtimber size classes of hardwoods in riparian areas. It utilizes mast and fruit for feeding during breeding season, oak mast in fall, and sedge seeds in winter and spring.

Red-shouldered hawk (Buteo lineatus) – This site may be preferred breeding and feeding habitat from sawtimber to large sawtimber size class forests. This species prefers cool, moist, mature mixed wooded wetlands in riparian areas. It utilizes closed canopy hardwood overstory inclusions for breeding; and for feeding it utilizes more open conditions such as canopy cover of greater than 70 percent with some 16 to 30 percent coverage.

Wild turkey (Meleagris gallopavo) – This site may be utilized for winter cover and feeding.

Eastern screech owl (Megascops asio) – This site may be preferred breeding, feeding, winter cover, and winter feeding habitat. This species need cavity trees with minimum diameter breast height (dbh) of 12 inches in riparian mixed wood and lives in forests of all tree size classes.

American woodcock (Scolopax minor) – This species require moist woodlands in early stages of succession such as the harvested state at this site, in thickets of alder, willow or maple, brushy edges of woods adjacent to dry open woods and fields for foraging. They prefer fertile, moist soil that contains earthworms for foraging and diurnal cover with forest openings, including blueberry fields and non-forested areas for courtship activities and nocturnal roosting. They do not winter in Maine except rarely along the coast.

Barred owl (Strix varia) – This site may be preferred breeding, feeding, winter cover, and winter feeding habitat. This species prefers cool, damp lowlands, and cavity trees with minimum diameter breast height (dbh) of 18 inches in riparian mixed wood areas, such as this site, as well as older northern hardwoods, swamp hardwoods, and pine/oak/red maple forest types.

Ruby-throated hummingbird (Archilochus colubris) – This site may be preferred breeding and feeding habitat, especially in the sawtimber and large sawtimber size classes of mixed woods. It also utilizes the seedling to sapling size classes where flowers, preferably red, are present. This includes jewelweed an indicator species for this site.

Downy (Picoides pubescens) and hairy (Picoides villosus) woodpeckers – This site may be preferred breeding, feeding, winter cover, and winter feeding habitat. These two species utilize mixed wood riparian areas of all tree size classes, such as this site, as well as other forest types.

Pileated woodpecker (Dryocopus pileatus) – This site may be preferred breeding, feeding, winter cover, and winter feeding habitat. This species need mature mixed forest with trees with column of decayed wood at least 18 inches diameter breast height (dbh) in riparian areas and hardwood swamps, such as this site, but may use upland stands of northern hardwood, pine/oak/red maple forest types.

Black-capped chickadee (Poecile atricapillus) – This site may be preferred breeding, feeding, winter cover, and winter feeding habitat. This species prefers large sawtimber size class in mixed wood riparian areas, hardwood swamps, such as this site, and northern hardwood forest types. They nest in small diameter trees with punky rotten cavities.

Winter wren (Troglodytes hiemalis) – This site may be preferred breeding and feeding habitat in the sawtimber or large sawtimber size class forests. This species prefers moist, mixed or coniferous woodlands with down logs and low woody vegetation. It utilizes this site for winter cover and feeding when this site is located in riparian areas.

Veery (Catharus fuscescens) – This site may be preferred breeding and feeding habitat in the sapling through large sawtimber size classes when in riparian areas and where there are more small gaps that provide an understory of low trees and shrubs. This species prefers moist mixed woodlands with an understory of low trees and shrubs that act as cover.

Hermit thrush (Catharus guttatus) – This site may be preferred breeding habitat if it is located in lowland, damp coniferous or mixed forests adjacent to woodland edges and brushy pastures and cool north-facing slopes.

Wood thrush (Hylocichla mustelina) - This site may be preferred breeding and feeding habitat in the sapling through large sawtimber size class forests. This species prefers cool, moist, mature deciduous or mixed forest in riparian areas.

Ovenbird (Seiurus aurocapillus) – This species utilizes this site for breeding and feeding and prefers mixed woods of all tree size classes. It usually is found in closed-canopy, mature deciduous or mixed woods, but often among pines. Open forests with little underbrush and an abundance of fallen leaves, logs, and rocks are preferred. Forest stand thinning may reduce ovenbird abundance until the canopy closes (Johnston, 1970).

Northern waterthrush (Parkesia noveboracensis) – This site may be preferred breeding and feeding habitat in the sawtimber and large sawtimber size classes of mixed woods. This species prefers cool, shaded, wet ground with shallow pools in riparian areas. Their preferred nest site is in a cavity on the ground: among roots of fallen trees, at the base of a moss-covered stump, or under a mossy log.

Mammals:
Virginia opossum (Didelphis virginiana) – This site may be preferred habitat in mixed wood riparian areas of all tree size classes, because it is commonly found in wet woods near rivers and swamps. They are omnivores and eat a wide variety of fruits, insects, small animals and snakes. They usually den in an abandoned burrow, tree cavity, hollow log, or brush pile near water (Llewellyn and Dale, 1964). They have been known to dwell near human habitation.

Shrew (Sorex spp) – These species utilize this site for breeding, feeding and over-wintering in mixed wood riparian areas of all tree size classes. Masked shrew (S. cinereus) prefers damp deciduous and coniferous woodlands with grasses, rocks, logs, or stumps for cover and nesting near bogs and other moist areas that have high humidity. The northern water shrew (S. palustris) may also utilize this site.

Star-nosed mole (Condylura cristata) – This species lives in wet lowland areas such as this site, because it prefers low wet ground near bodies of water, swamps, wet meadows, occasionally wet spots in fields or low-lying woods, and is carnivorous. It digs shallow surface tunnels for foraging; often, these tunnels exit underwater. It is active day and night and remains active in winter, when it has been observed tunneling through the snow and swimming in ice-covered streams.

Beaver (Castor Canadensis) – Although beaver are aquatic mammals, feeding and cover habitat depend on hardwood of all tree size classes from this site. They consume bark of deciduous trees especially aspen, balsam poplar, alder, willow, birch, and maple, and use sticks of wood to make their dams and lodges. Hardwood twigs are also stuck in the mud below water level near lodges for a winter food cache.

Southern red-backed vole (Myodes gapperi) – This species prefers moist deciduous, mixed, or coniferous forests among mossy rocks, logs, tree roots, or other cover. It favors damp situations in coniferous or mixed woods such as this site. Highest densities are found in subclimax communities (Cameron, 1958:46). It uses young clearcuts in deciduous or coniferous woodlands (Kirkland, 1978) and mixed forest (Lovejoy, 1975). It likes to be near water sources such as springs, brooks or bogs with debris cover (fallen trees, stumps, rocks, slash).

Woodland jumping mouse (Napaeozapus insignis) – This site may be preferred breeding, feeding, and winter cover habitat in sapling through large sawtimber size class forests. This species prefers moist cool mixed woodland, loose soils, and herbaceous cover in riparian areas. It prefers jewelweed seeds which is an indicator species on this site. It also feeds quite a bit on fungus of all kinds. It does not feed in winter because it hibernates.

Gray fox (Urocyon cinereoargenteus) – This site may be utilized for breeding, feeding, winter cover, and winter feeding habitat in sapling to large sawtimber size class forests. This species utilizes sites in mixed wood riparian areas, but is not limited to hardwood swamps. It can climb trees.

Black bear (Ursus americanus) – This site may be preferred breeding and feeding habitat. This species utilizes mixed wood riparian areas of all tree size classes. These sites are important spring time foraging locales for early spring ephemeral plants.

Raccoon – (Procyon lotor) – This site may be preferred breeding, feeding, winter cover, and winter feeding habitat in mixed wood riparian areas of all tree size classes. Higher populations are found in lowland deciduous or mixed forests abundant with water and marshes. It is commonly found in wetlands and/or uplands near human habitation.

Mink (Neovison vison) – This site may be preferred breeding, feeding, winter cover, and winter feeding habitat in all tree size classes in mixed wood riparian areas. They are aquatic foragers. They favor forested wetlands with abundant cover such as thickets, and windfall trees.

Fisher (Martes pennant) – This species prefer continuous forest and have been found in extensive conifer or mixed forests with canopy cover of greater than 80 percent, such as this site, and will avoid areas with less than 30 percent coverage. Fishers are more likely to be found in mature forests with larger diameter trees. They also like large amounts of large downed woody material. They favor wetlands (alder) and mixed softwood-hardwood forest types (Kelly, 1977:77).

White-tailed deer (Odocoileus viginianus) – This site may be utilized for breeding and feeding habitat in mixed wood riparian areas of all tree size classes. During winter months when snow depth exceeds 16 inches (40.6 cm) deer will "yard" in stands of conifers, forming a central resting area with trails packed through the snow. This species requires dense cover for winter shelter and adequate browse, which this site may provide when in a harvested state that has not been cut recently.

In parts of the eastern United States, some negative effects of high deer densities have been noted, such as forest degradation from over browsing by the deer. In northeastern hardwood forests, high-density deer populations affect plant succession, particularly following clear cuts and patch cuts. In vegetative succession without deer, annual herbs and woody plants are followed by commercially valuable, shade-tolerant species such as oak and maple. When deer consume earlier-succession plants, this allows in enough light for nutrient competitors to invade. Since slow growing tree species need several decades to develop root systems sufficient to compete with faster growing species, removal of the canopy prior to that point amplifies the effect of deer on successful vegetative succession (McShea, 1997).

There is also concern, especially in the southern part of MLRA 144B, over the facilitative effect high deer populations have on invasions of exotic plant species. In a study of eastern hemlock forests, browsing by white-tailed deer caused populations of three exotic plants to rise faster than they do in the areas which are absent of deer. Seedlings of the three invading species rose exponentially with deer density, while the most common native species fell exponentially with deer density, because deer were preferentially eating the native species. The effects of deer on the invasive and native plants were magnified in cases of canopy disturbance (Eschtruth and Battles, 2008).

Moose (Alces alces) – This site may be utilized for breeding and feeding habitat in mixed wood riparian areas of all tree size classes. This species prefers second-growth boreal forests (i.e. harvested state of this ecological site) interspersed with semi-open areas and swamps or lakes that offer cover and aquatic plants for food. Older growth stands of balsam fir and white birch, and intermediate-aged aspen stands are preferred cover habitat. They prefer browsing on forbs and other non-grasses, and the new growths from deciduous trees such as white birch, trembling aspen and striped maple, among many others. During summer they prefer to feed in or
near the harvested state of this ecological site, adjacent to shoreline areas where they
browse on tender leaves, twigs and bark of deciduous trees, and semi-aquatic and aquatic vegetation. They also graze on grasses, lichens, mosses, mushrooms, and herbaceous plants. Their winter diet is restricted to conifer (especially balsam fir) and hardwood twigs.

Harvested State
The harvested state may provide cover and food for a variety of wildlife that need a partially forested habitat. This may include wildlife species that need younger trees and shrubs for cover, such as the American woodcock and other early successional birds, those that prefer younger trees and shrubs for food, such as moose, and those species that need this type of cover and forage such as New England cottontail.

These sites may be managed for the American woodcock (Scolopax minor) because they provide foraging sites due to the non-stony nature and dampness of the soil, particularly in areas where young alder is growing. These sites are managed for woodcock in the Moosehorn National Wildlife Refuge by keeping the forest in a younger-aged state (Short et.al., 1997).

Cleared State
The cleared state may provide some critical wildlife habitat for early-migrating birds or some grassland birds. In the southern and central part of this MLRA, the cleared states and phases have a much higher likelihood of being developed into house lots now or in the near future. Conservation of these types of open areas is essential to a variety of wildlife species.


Domestic Livestock:
Some farms use the cleared grassland and forested states for grazing livestock. Grazing forests, particularly wetland forests in Maine, is highly discouraged. Grassland states provide some native and non-native pasture and hay. Compaction and overgrazing can be a major issue in pasture unless prescribed grazing conservation practice is implemented. Hayland can become very “weedy” with non-desirable species outcompeting desirable grasses and legumes because farmers are unable to cut the hayland on a regular schedule due to the wetness. Purple loosestrife is an invasive species that might take over a cleared grassland state that is not regularly harvested.

Hydrological functions

Water Budget
This reference site receives water from precipitation, surface inflow, and ground water inflow. It loses water to interception, evapotranspiration, surface outflow, and ground water outflow. Both inputs and outputs vary by the time of year.

This site is considered a forested wetland and has a perched water table that provides multiple hydrologic functions including the capacity to maintain variations in water storage levels, including variations in depth and duration over a year. The reference site will maintain its characteristic water level fluctuations if it is not hydrologically modified. Water table monitoring (with wells) over long time periods to independently characterize seasonal and inter-annual variations in water level in an unaltered reference state have not been conducted. This site also dampens the effect of excess runoff and floodwaters. It helps to minimize downslope flooding, filtering runoff and protecting water quality, maintaining cool water temperatures for fish, providing the energy base of the aquatic food chain in the form of fallen leaves, and providing logs that create cover for invertebrates. It acts as a sediment trap by erosion from upslope or upstream.
Extensive tree cutting and operation of heavy equipment in these areas, if not on frozen ground, can change their drainage characteristics and degrade their wildlife habitat and plant productivity and diversity values. Following harvest, changes in the distribution of organic matter may have long-term effects on soil fertility and productivity by altering the properties of the organic matter. This in turn may increase evaporative losses of moisture. It might take up to 18 years to recover from this degradation. Harvesting on frozen ground or snow cover, and using low-pressure tires is recommended to minimize rutting and disturbance of soil structure and hydrology.

Because this reference site is considered a “wetland” according to Section 404 of the Clean Water Act, some forestry activities are exempt from regulation, including normal silvicultural activities, such as plowing, seeding, cultivating, minor drainage, and harvesting of forest products as part of an on-going operation. The construction and maintenance of forest roads and mechanical site preparation are exempt where they are in compliance with best management practices (BMP). BMPs include 1) minimize soil disturbance during shearing and raking; 2) avoid excessive soil compaction; 3) arrange windrows to limit erosion and overland flow; 4) prevent disposal or storage of logs or debris in streamside management areas; 5) maintain natural contour of the harvest/planting site; and 6) minimize offsite water quality impacts.

Recreational uses

This site is typically not used for recreation except for hunting and winter activities such as cross-country skiing and snowmobiling. These activities usually do not cause any environmental damage because they are done when the ground is frozen and plants are not growing. There has been an increased interest in all-terrain vehicle (ATV) use, which usually occurs on snowless areas and could cause some damage, such as soil compaction and rutting. Pedestrian and motorized vehicle access, including ATVs should be limited when the ground is not frozen. This will reduce the chances of soil compaction, rutting, that wildlife will be killed and their habitat trampled. It will also reduce the disruption of vegetative succession and the development of distribution corridors for exotic and invasive plants.

Wood products

In Maine, most all species of trees have a commercial market in-state or out-of-state. This reference site may provide a variety of wood products including sawlogs (veneer, boltwood, studwood, palletwood, etc.), pulpwood, biomass chips, and firewood/pellets. (Maine Forest Service, 2013). All tree species that grow on this site can be marketed for biomass and firewood and usually this is the whole tree, but sometimes it can be just the tops and branches.

Softwood sawlogs have a larger market than hardwood sawlogs in Maine. The white pine on this site is the most desirable species for sawlog products, but this site is not a highly productive site for white pine because of the poor drainage and clayey nature of the soil. The average statewide price per million board feet (MBF) for white pine sawlogs in 2011 was $161(Maine Forest Service, November 15, 2012). Hardwood pulpwood has a larger market than softwood pulpwood. White pine may also be sold for pulpwood, which sold for $4 per MBF in 2011. Other species growing on this site have a variety of markets. For example: quaking aspen may be marketed for pulpwood, sawlogs, and veneer; spruce and balsam fir for pulpwood, sawlogs, and studwood; northern red cedar for boltwood, pulpwood, and sawlogs; red maple for sawlogs and veneer; and ash species as well as white oak for sawlogs.

Some typically non-commercial species from this site, including gray birch (Betula populifolia), and rarely American hornbeam (Carpinus caroliniana) and eastern hop-hornbeam (Ostrya virginiana), may also provide enough wood volume to be used for biomass (USDA, Forest Service, 2010).

Other products

This reference site may provide black ash, which is used by Native American tribes to make baskets or northern white cedar which is used to make cedar-strip canoes. It might also provide herbs and fruits used by native peoples and others. Examples include jewelweed which is a medicinal plant used to provide relief for poison ivy dermatitis, and acorns which can be ground into a paste for food. Moss harvest may also occur, but this could be detrimental if over-harvested.

Other information

Carbon Sequestration:

In Maine, approximately 50 percent of a living tree’s biomass is found in its main bole. The belowground portion of the stump and coarse roots store approximately 17 percent of the living biomass. The tops and limbs contain another 12 percent. The aboveground portion of the stump contains only 3 percent of the total. Saplings amount to approximately 14 percent of the living aboveground biomass. A tree’s foliage accounts for approximately 4 percent.

On this site, biomass of spruces, white pine, hemlock, and northern white-cedar is primarily in saw log-size trees. By contrast, most of the tree biomass in balsam fir, red maple, aspen, the ashes, and beech are contained in pole-size and sapling-size trees. (USDA, Forest Service, 2010) Carbon in the mineral soil under Maine’s forests is not strongly correlated to forest-type group. This is true for the surface soil (0-10 cm), the shallow subsoil (10-20 cm), and the sum of the two. Mineral soil carbon is higher in the southern and central parts of 144B.
This reference site may provide a higher amount of total carbon sequestered due to the higher concentrations of larger diameters and standing dead trees, particularly in the southern part of 144B.
The greatest portion (> 48 percent) of the stored carbon on this site is found below ground in the soil organic matter. Live tree pools in above and belowground biomass account for another 30 percent of the total. Another 22 percent is contained in standing dead trees, down woody material, understory plants, and the forest floor litter. (USDA, Forest Service, 2010)

Diseases and Pests:

This reference site has enough diversity that disease agents and insect pests are presently not of any major concern. The Emerald Ash Borer may be of future concern if it reaches Maine because it could decimate the ash species which are a key component of this site.

Fire Hazard Potential:

The fuel loadings of down woody material (time-lag fuel classes) are not exceedingly high in Maine (USDA, Forest Service, 2010). Only in times of extreme drought would these low amounts (< 800 cubic feet per acre) of fuels pose a fire hazard in Maine’s forests.

Table 28. Representative site productivity

Inventory data references

Future work is needed, as described in a future project plan, to validate the information presented in this provisional ecological site description. Future work includes field sampling, data collection and analysis by qualified vegetation ecologists and soil scientists. As warranted, annual reviews of the project plan can be conducted by the Ecological Site Technical Team. A final field review, peer review, quality control, and quality assurance reviews of the ESD are necessary to approve a final document.

The data contained in this document is derived from analysis of inventories and ecological interpretation from field evaluations. Four high intensity inventories (see Other Inventory Data References table below for locations) were conducted for the forested reference state. One high intensity inventory was completed for each of the alternative states and phases. All high intensity inventories used the Relevé method for overstory and understory canopy cover estimates. A plot 20 meters by 20 meters was used for all forested states and was located on as homogeneous a site as possible with respect to vegetation, soils, landscape variables, and disturbance. Ecotones or breaks/transitional areas between distinct plant communities were avoided by using at least a 75 foot buffer. A 10 BAF sub-plot in the center of the plot was used for overstory basal area. No site index (SI) was performed on any of the plots, because none of the sites met SI criteria. SI criteria not met include: No sites contained at least 5 trees of a species that were approximately 50 years old and have a site index curve from the NRCS National Register of Site Index Curves, or landowner permission was not received to core trees. One existing SI record was available for this site. Heights and dbh are in English units.

Selection of representative sampling sites was determined subjectively by using expert knowledge from soil survey staff as well as identifying potential sites through the use of several GIS layers including soil survey maps and the NatureServe Northeast Terrestrial Habitat GIS layer. A technical meeting was held and the Technical Team determined that at least 12 vegetation data points should be completed at the medium intensity level and 3 or 4 sites of those sampled should be completed at the high intensity level for use in developing the representative state and transition model (STM) and ecological site description. Sites were distributed throughout the MLRA 144B area in Maine to obtain the most range of variability. Ten sites were completed and four reference sites were used in aggregate for populating the vegetation tables in this report. One high-intensity plot was used for each alternative state and phase.

Vegetation Composition Tables may contain multiple listings of tree species due to the use of a Stratum Height System. The system is: 0.5 - 1.6 ft., >1.6 - 3.3 ft., >3.3 - 6.5 ft., >6.5 - 16 ft., >16 - 33 ft., >33 - 65 ft., >65 - 100 ft., >100 ft.

Type locality

Other references

Comer, P., D. Faber-Langendoen, R. Evans, S. Grawler, C. Josse, G. Kittel, S. Menard, M. Pyne, M. Reid, K. Schultz, K. Snow, and J. Teague. 2003. Ecological Systems of the United States: A Working Classification of U.S. Terrestrial Systems. NatureServe, Arlington, Virginia

Edinger, G. J., D. J. Evans, S. Gebauer, T. G. Howard, D. M. Hunt, and A. M. Olivero (editors). 2014. Ecological Communities of New York State. Second Edition. A revised and expanded edition of Carol Reschke’s Ecological Communities of New York State. New York Natural Heritage Program, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation, Albany, NY.

Gawler, S. and A. Cutko. 2010. Natural Landscapes of Maine: A Guide to Natural Communities and Ecosystems. Maine Natural Areas Program, Maine Department of Conservation, Augusta, Maine.

NatureServe. 2021. NatureServe Explorer: An online encyclopedia of life [web application]. NatureServe, Arlington, Virginia. https://explorer.natureserve.org/. (accessed 10 July. 2021).

Soil Survey Staff, Natural Resources Conservation Service, United States Department of Agriculture. 2006. Land Resource Regions and Major Land Resource Areas of the United States, the Caribbean, and the Pacific Basin. Agricultural Handbook 296

Soil Survey Staff, Natural Resources Conservation Service, United States Department of Agriculture. Official Soil Series Descriptions. Available online. (accessed 11 Aug. 2021).

Soil Survey Staff, Natural Resources Conservation Service, United States Department of Agriculture. Soil Climate Research Station Data. Available online. (accessed 23 June. 2021).

Soil Survey Staff, Natural Resources Conservation Service, United States Department of Agriculture. Soil Survey Geographic (SSURGO) Database for [MLRA 141, Maine]. Available online. (accessed 14 Oct. 2021).

Sperduto, D.D. and William F. Nichols. 2011. Natural Communities of New Hampshire. 2nd Ed. NH Natural Heritage Bureau, Concord, NH. Pub. UNH Cooperative Extension, Durham, NH.

Swain, P. C. 2020. Classification of the Natural Communities of Massachusetts. Massachusetts Division of Fisheries and Wildlife, Westborough, MA

USNVC [United States National Vegetation Classification]. 2017. United States National Vegetation Classification Database V2.01. Federal Geographic Data Committee, Vegetation Subcommittee, Washington DC. Available The U.S. National Vegetation Classification (usnvc.org) (accessed 2 July. 2021).

Contributors

Sally Butler
Christopher Mann

Approval

Nels Barrett, 9/27/2024

Acknowledgments

Nels Barrett and Nick Butler provided considerable review of this ecological site concept.