Physiographic features

This ecological site occurs on volcanic ash deposited over lava flows on sloping mountainsides of shield volcanoes. Lava flows are aa (loose, cobbly); a very small area is underlain by volcanic cinders.

Table 2. Representative physiographic features

Table 3. Representative physiographic features (actual ranges)

Climatic features

(Unless otherwise cited, the information in this section is derived from Western Regional Climate Center, cited 2020).

Summary for this ecological site
Average annual precipitation in this ecological site ranges from 20 to 40 inches (500 to 1000 mm). Extremes of average annual precipitation may range as low as 15 inches (375 mm). Most of the precipitation occurs from October through April. Average annual temperatures range from 69 to 73 degrees F (20 to 23 degrees C). Conditions typically are dry. Rainfall occurs as occasional light trade wind showers that drift over from the windward side of the island and as heavier rainfall during major winter storms. Major storms are important for soil moisture recharge, and the number of major storms is highly variable; drought can result from a winter with few or no storms. Due to the latitude, daylength varies little during the year, resulting in only about a 50 percent variation in solar energy input between June maximum to December minimum; this variation is somewhat less than that found in the continental United States. Conditions are generally clear; except at the highest extremes of this ecological site, frequent cloudiness higher on the mountain slopes usually does not shade this area due to the angle of the sun.

General principles
Air temperature in the Hawaiian Islands is buffered by the surrounding ocean so that the range in temperature through the year is narrow. This creates “iso-“ soil temperature regimes in which mean summer and winter temperatures differ by less than 6 degrees C (11 degrees F).

The islands lie within the trade wind zone. Significant amounts of moisture are picked up from the ocean by trade winds up to an altitude of more than about 6000 feet (1850 meters). As the trade winds from the northeast are forced up the mountains of the islands their moisture condenses, creating rain on the windward slopes; leeward sides of the island receive less of this moisture, depending on the height of the mountains.

Hawaiian indigenous understanding recognized two seasons: Kau or Kauwela (dry season) when the sun was directly overhead, days are long and warm and tradewinds are stronger and more consistent; Kau started on the first new moon in May when the Pleiades set at sunrise (Handy, 1991). During Ho’oilo (wet season) the sun is declined toward the south, days are shorter, temperatures cooler and winds more variable and generally started with the first new moon in November. Ho’oilo is also the season when extensive low-pressure systems often approach the islands from the west, producing heavy rainstorms that primarily affect the leeward sides, but can envelope the entire island. (Malo, 1903, Handy 1991, Sanderson, 1993). These seasons are mostly consistent with modern observations today. These phenomena of pressure systems and seasonal differences interact with the islands’ topography which together creates the various climate zones and patterns observed in the islands. One such general pattern can be seen in the differences in rainfall amounts between winter and summer; in low elevation dry areas the differences are greater whereas wetter areas exhibit less seasonal variation in rainfall.

The zones of highest rainfall on the windward flanks of Haleakala, on the eastern portion of Maui, lie at elevations of 2000 to 4000 feet (615 to 1230 meters). In the West Maui mountains, which are lower than 6000 feet (1850 meters), the highest rainfall is along or near the summits. Fluctuating between approximately 5000 and 7000 feet (1540 to 2150 meters) elevation on Haleakala is a temperature inversion at the boundary between moist air and higher, drier air; this inversion occurs 50 to 70 percent of the time. Distinct vegetation changes occur within a short distance at the inversion layer, with lush forest vegetation below the layer and dry savanna, shrubland, grasslands, and sparsely vegetated areas above it. In winter, major storms may deposit snow on the upper slopes of Haleakala, but snow accumulations on the ground typically do not last long.

Low-elevation (to about 2000 feet or 615 meters) areas on the leeward sides of Maui are very warm, sunny, and dry. The central valley, between Haleakala and West Maui, is very warm and dry; this valley is also windy due to trade winds passing around the northwest corner of Haleakala.

On the windward sides of the islands, cool, moist air at higher elevations descends toward the ocean where it meets the trade winds; this process brings rainfall, often at night, to lower elevation areas.

Sea-to-land naulu winds regularly flow up the western and southern slopes of Haleakala, forming clouds on these faces of the mountain between about 3000 to 6000 feet (925 to 1850 meters). These clouds can form a shadow at lower elevations and produce fog drip at higher elevations where the clouds contact the mountain (Leopold 1949; Schroeder 1981). Fog drip contributes a significant amount of water to vegetation and soil in addition to rainfall, and the proportion of annual moisture provided by fog drip is higher in areas with relatively low rainfall (Juvik and Nullet 1993).

Table 4. Representative climatic features

Influencing water features

There are some ephemeral streams that have formed gulches in this ecological site. These can flow strongly during and after heavy rainstorms. The gulches are partly vegetated with species typical of the rest of the ecological site.

Soil features

All the soils in this ecological site formed from fine materials deposited over and in the interstices of basaltic aa lava. The lava rock fragments that constitute aa range in size from gravel (up to 3 inches, or 2 mm to 76 mm) to stones (10 to 25 inches, or 250 mm to 600 mm), but are primarily gravel and cobbles (76 mm to 250 mm, or 3 to 10 inches). Below the layer of rock fragments is massive lava called “bluerock.” The fine materials are volcanic ash in Kamaole and Puu Pa soils and highly decomposed organic material in Kaimu soils. Interstices between stones are filled with fine soil material near the surface. The deepest horizon typically consists of rocks with empty voids between them.

Soil temperature regimes are isothermic (warm) or, in some cases, isohyperthermic (very warm). Soil moisture regimes are ustic (in most years, dry for more than 90 cumulative days but less than 180 days) or, in some cases, drier than ustic, being intergrades between ustic and aridic. All the soils are either very stony or extremely stony. This reduces the amount of soil material per unit of volume, which reduces overall water holding capacity of the soil. However, given the moderate to rapid permeability of all the soils, it enables water to percolate to deeper horizons, which have finer textures and good water holding capacity in all the soils in this ecological site except Puu Pa. Surface soil pH ranges from 5.8 to 6.2; extreme pH in subsurface soils within 30 inches (75 centimeters) of the surface ranges from 7.2 to 7.4.

PUU PA soils are mapped on Maui over an elevation range of 400 to 6300 feet (125 to 1940 meters). This exceeds the concept of the ecological site due to the wide temperature and moisture range this map unit encompasses; updated soil mapping is needed. For this ecological site, Puu Pa soils are included up to elevations of about 2600 feet (600 to 800 meters).

Puu Pa soils are classified today as Humic Haplustands. They are deep (40 to 60 inches or 100 to 150 centimeters) and well drained. They originally formed in volcanic ash (see next paragraph). They have relatively thick, dark surface horizons containing abundant organic matter, and high (greater than 50 percent) base saturation. Having formed on aa lava, Puu Pa soils are medial-skeletal, meaning they have a water content at the crop wilting point of 30 to 100 percent (medial) and have 35 percent or more, by volume, rock fragments (skeletal) in much of their profile.

The volcanic ash soils of the Island of Maui are derived mostly from basaltic ash that varies relatively little in chemical composition (Hazlett and Hyndman 1996; Vitousek 2004)). Most of these volcanic ash soils are classified today as Andisols, which have these general management characteristics: ion exchange capacity that varies with pH, but mostly retaining anions such as nitrate; high phosphorus adsorption, which restricts phosphorus availability to plants; excellent physical properties (low bulk density, good friability, weak stickiness, stable soil aggregates) for cultivation, seedling emergence, and plant root growth; resistance to compaction and an ability to recover from compaction following repeated cycles of wetting and drying; and high capacity to hold water that is available to plants. These characteristics are due to the properties of the parent material, the clay-size noncrystalline materials formed by weathering, and the soil organic matter accumulated during soil formation (Shoji et al. 1993).

Soils of the KAMAOLE series are classified as Aridic Haplustolls. Although they originally formed in volcanic ash deposited in aa, they are old and weathered enough to have developed beyond Andisols to the Mollisols soil order. They are shallow (10 to 20 inches or 25 to 50 centimeters) and well drained. They have an ustic soil moisture regime but are even drier, intergrading to an aridic soil moisture regime. They have relatively thick, dark surface horizons containing abundant organic matter, do not become hard when dry, and have high (greater than 50 percent) base saturation. Having formed on aa lava, Kamaole soils are fragmental, meaning that the fine earth component of the soil is less than 10 percent of the total volume; rock fragments occupy the rest of the volume.

Many of the soils in very warm (mostly isohyperthermic, but sometimes isothermic), seasonally dry (ustic) parts of Maui are Mollisols or have mollic properties. Some of their unique properties are a combination of a relatively thick, dark surface horizon (mollic epipedon) that does not become hard when dry, a dominance of calcium among the extractable cations, and a dominance of crystalline clay minerals of moderate or high cation-exchange capacity. Although Mollisols usually form under grass in seasonally dry climates, they can form under forest vegetation. The original native vegetation here was dry forest or savanna.

The information about KAIMU series in this narrative is based mostly on the 1972 Soil Survey. Kaimu soils have been mapped more recently and extensively on the Island of Hawaii, and this updated information is inconsistent with the 1972 survey. The following information is from the 1972 survey.

Kaimu soils are classified within the Histosols soil order. They formed in organic material consisting of highly decomposed leaves, twigs, and wood with small amounts of basic volcanic ash, cinders, and weathered lava; this is called highly decomposed parent material (hdpm). They are somewhat excessively drained and shallow. Soil material fills the voids between the aa rocks to a depth of about 8 inches (20 centimeters); from this depth to bluerock (at about 20 inches or 50 centimeters), the voids are not completely filled with soil material.

Kaimu soils formed in aa lava. The lava rock fragments that constitute aa range in size from gravel (up to 3 inches or 2 to 76 millimeters) to stones (10 to 25 inches or 250 to 600 millimeters) but are primarily gravel and cobbles (3 to 10 inches or 76 to 250 millimeters). Below the layer of rock fragments is massive lava called “bluerock.” Despite their unusual characteristics, soils such as these can support woodlands or forests with small to large stature trees depending on precipitation amounts. To observe the natural state of these soils, one must carefully disassemble the lava rock fragments and soil so as not to allow the soil materials to fall into the voids below.

Kaimu soils are classified as “euic.” This is a “Reaction Class” for Histosols that is determined by having pH >4.5 in 0.01 M CaCl2 in one or more layers in the control section. Since organic soils contain very little or no aluminum, which is the primary negative factor for plant growth in strongly to extremely acid soils, most plants grow well in organic soils at much lower pH (between 4.5 and 5.5) than in mineral soils. Euic Histosols have relatively high contents of plant nutrients retained against leaching by the variable-charge cation exchange that develops in the pH range (6.2 surface and 7.2 subsurface) of Kaimu soils.

Kaimu soils are classified as having an isohyperthermic (very warm) soil temperature regime. Because their elevation range on Maui is 1500 to 3000 feet (460 to 925 meters) and higher, they probably range from isohyperthermic to isothermic.

Adjoining the soils described above are lands mapped as MISCELLANEOUS AREAS. By definition, they have little or no soil and support sparse or no vegetation. Miscellaneous Areas are extensive in the Five Islands Soil Survey upon which this ecological site is based, and most were mapped by low-intensity reconnaissance methods that provide less-detailed information than that presented for soil series and their phases. In many cases, however, Miscellaneous Areas in Maui, Molokai, Lanai, Oahu, and Kauai are moderately- to well-vegetated and/or contain plant and animal species of interest to conservationists. They are either extremely difficult to access or were not considered important enough at the time of this survey to warrant full expenditure of resources. They are described in the following paragraphs.

ROCK LAND (rRK) occurs on parent materials of basalt or andesite. Rock cover on the surface ranges from 25 to 90 percent; soils are very shallow (less than 10 inches or 25 centimeters). Near this ecological site, it occurs mostly in gulches created by ephemeral streams. Vegetation is generally sparse, but in some spots, vegetation is dense due to localized accumulations of soil and extra moisture from seasonal stream flows. Common plant species are kiawe (Prosopis pallida), klu (Vachellia farnesiana), pili grass (Heteropogon contortus), uhaloa (Waltheria indica), and koa haole (Leucaena leucocephala).

ROCK OUTCROP (rRO) has exposed bedrock of basalt or andesite covering more than 90 percent of the surface. Near this ecological site, it occurs mostly in gulches created by ephemeral streams. Vegetation is mostly sparse, but some gulch bottoms support more vegetation due to localized accumulations of soil and extra moisture from seasonal stream flows.

VERY STONY LAND (rVS) on Maui occurs mostly in parent materials of aa lava with volcanic ash. Fifty to 90 percent of the surface is covered with stones and boulders. Some occurrences of Very Stony Land adjoining this ecological site support vegetation as dense as, or denser than, some soil series. The array of plant species is probably similar to that found on the soil series.

Table 5. Representative soil features

Other references

Definitions
These definitions have been greatly simplified for brevity and do not cover every aspect of each topic.

Aa lava: A type of basaltic lava having a rough, jagged, clinkery surface and a vesicular interior.

Alluvial: Materials or processes associated with transportation and/or deposition by running water.

Aquic soil moisture regime: A regime in which the soil is free of dissolved oxygen because it is saturated by water. This regime typically exists in bogs or swamps.

Aquisalids: These are salty soils in wet areas. Although wet, the dissolved salts make the soils physiologically dry (the chemical activity, or effective concentration, of water is low). Aquisalids typically support plant species that are adapted to these conditions.

Aridic soil moisture regime: A regime in which defined parts of the soil are, in normal years, dry for more than half of the growing season and moist for less than 90 consecutive days during the growing season. In Hawaii it is associated with hot, dry areas with plants such as kiawe, wiliwili, and buffelgrass. The terms aridic and torric are basically the same.

Ash field: a land area covered by a thick or distinctive deposit of volcanic ash that can be traced to a specific source and has well defined boundaries. The term “ash flow” is erroneously used in the Physiographic section of this ESD due to a flaw in the national database.

Ashy: A “soil texture modifier” for volcanic ash soils having a water content at the crop wilting point of less than 30 percent; a soil that holds relatively less water than “medial” and “hydrous” soils.

Available water capacity: The amount of soil water available to plants to the depth of the first root-restricting layer.

Basal area or basal cover: The cross sectional area of the stem or stems of a plant or of all plants in a stand.

Blue rock: The dense, hard, massive lava that forms the inner core of an aa lava flow.

Bulk density: the weight of dry soil per unit of volume. Lower bulk density indicates a greater amount of pore space that can hold water and air in a soil.

CaCO3 equivalent: The amount of free lime in a soil. Free lime exists as solid material and typically occurs in regions with a dry climate.

Canopy cover: The percentage of ground covered by the vertical projection downward of the outermost perimeter of the spread of plant foliage. Small openings within the canopy are included.

Community pathway: A description of the causes of shifts between community phases. A community pathway is reversible and is attributable to succession, natural disturbances, short-term climatic variation, and facilitating practices, such as grazing management.

Community phase: A unique assemblage of plants and associated dynamic soil properties within a state.

Dominant species: Plant species or species groups that exert considerable influence upon a community due to size, abundance, or cover.

Drainage class: The frequency, duration, and depth of a water table in a soil. There are seven drainage classes, ranging from “excessively drained” (soils with very rare or very deep water tables) to “well drained” (soils that provide ample water for plant growth but are not so wet as to inhibit root growth) to “very poorly drained” (soils with a water table at or near the surface during much of the growing season that inhibits growth of most plants).

Electrical conductivity (EC): A measure of the salinity of a soil. The standard unit is deciSiemens per meter (dS/m), which is numerically equivalent to millimhos per centimeter (mmhos/cm). An EC greater than about 4 dS/m indicates a salinity level that is unfavorable to growth of most plants.

Euic: This is a “Reaction Class” for Histosols that is determined by having pH >4.5 in 0.01 M CaCl2 in one or more layers in the control section

Friability: A soil consistency term pertaining to the ease of crumbling of soils.

Gleyed: A condition of soil from which iron has been reduced (in the redox chemistry sense) and removed during soil formation or that saturation with stagnant water has preserved a reduced state. If iron has been removed, the soil is the color of uncoated sand and silt particles. If iron is present in a reduced state, the soil is the color of reduced iron (typically bluish-gray). Redox concentrations (spots of oxidized iron, formerly called mottles are often present.

Hydrous: A “soil texture modifier” for volcanic ash soils having a water content at the crop wilting point of 100 percent or more; a soil that holds more water than “medial” or “ashy” soils.

Ion exchange capacity: The ability of soil materials such as clay or organic matter to retain ions (which may be plant nutrients) and to release those ions for uptake by roots.

Isohyperthermic soil temperature regime: A regime in which mean annual soil temperature is 72 degrees F (22 degrees C) or higher and mean summer and mean winter soil temperatures differ by less than 11 degrees F (6 degrees C) at a specified depth.

Isomesic soil temperature regime: A regime in which mean annual soil temperature is 47 degrees F (8 degrees C) or higher but lower than 59 degrees F (15 degrees C) and mean summer and mean winter soil temperatures differ by less than 11 degrees F (6 degrees C) at a specified depth.

Isothermic soil temperature regime: A regime in which mean annual soil temperature is 59 degrees F (15 degrees C) or higher but lower than 72 degrees F (22 degrees C) and mean summer and mean winter soil temperatures differ by less than 11 degrees F (6 degrees C) at a specified depth.

Kipuka: An area of land surrounded by younger (more recent) lava. Soils and plant communities within a kipuka are older than, and often quite different from, those on the surrounding surfaces.

Major Land Resource Area (MLRA): A geographic area defined by NRCS that is characterized by a particular pattern of soils, climate, water resources, and land uses. The island of Hawaii contains nine MLRAs, some of which also occur on other islands in the state.

Makai: a Hawaiian word meaning “toward the sea.”

Mauka: a Hawaiian word meaning “toward the mountain” or “inland.”

Medial: A “soil texture modifier” for volcanic ash soils having a water content at the crop wilting point of 30 to 100 percent; a soil that holds an amount of water intermediate to “hydrous” or “ashy” soils.

Mollisols: Soils with relatively thick, dark surface horizons, high cation-exchange capacity, high calcium content, that do not become hard or very hard when dry. Mollisols are conducive to plant growth. They characteristically form under grass in climates that are seasonally dry but can form under forests.

Naturalized plant community: A community dominated by adapted, introduced species. It is a relatively stable community resulting from secondary succession after disturbance. Most grasslands in Hawaii are in this category.

Oxisols: Soils characteristic of humid, tropical or subtropical regions that formed on land surfaces that have been stable for a long time. In Hawaii, they typically occur on islands or parts of islands that have been volcanically inactive for a long time. Oxisols are highly weathered, consist largely of quartz, kaolin clays, and aluminum oxides, and have low ion exchange capacity and loamy or clayey texture.

Pahoehoe lava: A type of basaltic lava with a smooth, billowy, or rope-like surface and vesicular interior.

Parent material: Unconsolidated and chemically weathered material from which a soil is developed.

Perudic soil moisture regime: A very wet regime found where precipitation exceeds evapotranspiration in all months of normal years. On the island of Hawaii, this regime is found on top of Kohala and on parts of the windward side of Mauna Kea.

pH: The numerical expression of the relative acidity or alkalinity of a soil sample. A pH of 7 is neutral; a pH below 7 is acidic and a pH above 7 is basic.

Phosphorus adsorption: The ability of soil materials to tightly retain phosphorous ions, which are a plant nutrient. Some volcanic ash soils retain phosphorus so strongly that it is partly unavailable to plants.

Psamments: Sandy soils that have low water-holding capacity, are susceptible to wind erosion, and typically have ground water deeper than 20 inches (50 centimeters).

Reference community phase: The phase exhibiting the characteristics of the reference state and containing the full complement of plant species that historically occupied the site. It is the community phase used to classify an ecological site.

Reference state: A state that describes the ecological potential and natural or historical range of variability of an ecological site.

Residuum: Unconsolidated mineral material that has chemically and physically weathered from rock and has not moved from its place of origin.

Restoration pathway: A term describing the environmental conditions and practices that are required to recover a state that has undergone a transition.

Sodium adsorption ratio (SAR): A measure of the amount of dissolved sodium relative to calcium and magnesium in the soil water. SAR values higher than 13 create soil conditions unfavorable to most plants.

Soil moisture regime: A term referring to the presence or absence either of ground water or of water held at a tension of less than 1500 kPa (the crop wilting point) in the soil or in specific horizons during periods of the year.

Soil temperature regime: A defined class based on mean annual soil temperature and on differences between summer and winter temperatures at a specified depth.

Soil reaction: Numerical expression in pH units of the relative acidity or alkalinity or a soil.

Spodosols: Soils with a spodic B horizon that has an accumulation of black or reddish amorphous materials that have a high pH-dependent ion exchange capacity, coarse texture, and few base cations. Above the spodic horizon there often is a light-colored albic horizon that was the source of the amorphous materials in the spodic horizon.

State: One or more community phases and their soil properties that interact with the abiotic and biotic environment to produce persistent functional and structural attributes associated with a characteristic range of variability.

State-and-transition model: A method used to display information about relationships between vegetation, soil, animals, hydrology, disturbances, and management actions on an ecological site.

Torric soil moisture regime: See Aridic soil moisture regime.

Transition: A term describing the biotic or abiotic variables or events that contribute to loss of state resilience and result in shifts between states.

Udic soil moisture regime: A regime in which the soil is not dry in any part for as long as 90 cumulative days in normal years, and so provides ample moisture for plants. In Hawaii it is associated with forests in which hapuu (tree ferns) are usually moderately to highly abundant.

Ultisols: Soils that have been intensively leached and weathered. They have a B horizon that has accumulated clay that has translocated there from higher horizons. They have moderate to low cation exchange capacity and low base saturation. The highest base saturation normally is in the few centimeters directly beneath the surface due to cycling of bases by plants.

Ustic soil moisture regime: A regime in which moisture is limited but present at a time when conditions are suitable for plant growth. In Hawaii it usually is associated with dry forests and subalpine shrublands.

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Contributors

David Clausnitzer
John Proctor
Carolyn Wong
Mike Kolman
Mathew Cocking
Kendra Moseley
Amy Koch
Michael Constantinides
Jennifer Higashino

Approval

Kendra Moseley, 5/08/2025

Acknowledgments

Assistance, advice, review, and/or insights:

Elena Dosamantes, NRCS
Darren Pinnegar, NRCS
Jamin Johanson, NRCS
Tyler Annetts, NRCS
Kekai Kapu
Kristin Almasin, Ulapalakua Ranch
Jason Hew, NRCS
Randy Bartlett, Puu Kukui Watershed Preserve
Alison Cohan, The Nature Conservancy
Michael Constantinides, NRCS-PIA
Gordon Cran, Kapapala Ranch
Diana Crow, Ulupalakua Ranch
Lance DeSilva, Hawaii DLNR
Kerri Fay, Waikamoi Preserve, The Nature Conservancy
Alex Franco, Kaupo Ranch
Ranae Ganske-Cerizo, NRCS
Carl Hashimoto, NRCS
Jennifer Higashino, USFWS and NRCS
Bob Hobdy, consultant, Maui
Wallace Jennings, NRCS
Mel Johansen, The Nature Conservancy
Jordan Jokiel, Haleakala Ranch
David Leonard, volunteer
Penny Levin
Reese Libby, GIS - NRCS
Hannah Lutgen, Maui SWCD
Joseph May, NRCS
Scott Meidel, Haleakala Ranch
Anna Palomino, Hoolawa Farms Inc.
Jon Price, USGS
Tamara Sherrill, USFWS, Maui Nui Botanical Garden
Amber Starr, Hana Ranch
Kahana Stone, NRCS
Mark Vaught, Water Resources, Alexander & Baldwin
Jacqueline Vega, NRCS
Rich von Wellsheim, Whispering Bamboos, Kipahulu