Natural Resources
Conservation Service
Ecological site VX160X01X006
Isomesic Savanna
Accessed: 11/14/2024
General information
Provisional. A provisional ecological site description has undergone quality control and quality assurance review. It contains a working state and transition model and enough information to identify the ecological site.
MLRA notes
Major Land Resource Area (MLRA): 160X–Subhumid and Humid Intermediate and High Mountain Slopes
This MLRA occurs in the State of Hawaii on the Big Island of Hawaii and to a small extent on Maui. Elevation ranges from 1000 to 9000 feet (300 to 2725 meters). Slopes are moderate to steep. Topography is sloping to hilly, and cinder cones are common. Lava flows are basaltic or andesitic aa or pahoehoe lava. Aa may form outcrops at higher elevations, but most of the area is covered with material weathered from deep volcanic ash. Areas of volcanic sand and gravel alluvium exist. Average annual precipitation ranges from 20 to 75 inches (500 to 1875 millimeters). Most of the rainfall occurs during kona storms from November through March. In some areas afternoon fog accumulation at higher elevations adds significant moisture to the soil by fog drip and also ameliorates evapotranspiration. Average annual air temperatures range from 50 to 71 degrees F (10 to 20 degrees C), with little seasonal variation. Strong winds are frequent in the saddle between Mauna Kea and Kohala volcanoes. The dominant soil order is Andisols with an isomesic soil temperature regime and ustic or udic soil moisture regime. Native vegetation consists of forests and rangelands that can include medium to tall statured forests, savannas, and grasslands.
Classification relationships
This ecological site occurs within Major Land Resource Area (MLRA) 160 - Subhumid and Humid Intermediate and High Mountain Slopes.
Ecological site concept
This ecological site is a shrubland interspersed with small stands of ohia lehua. Most of it occurs at high elevations on the windward (northeast and southeast facing) slopes of Mauna Loa. Small, scattered occurrences exist on Mauna Loa's other slopes, and a few minor examples also occur on Hualalai. Most of the area is with Hawaii Volcanoes National Park and Kamehameha Schools lands; smaller amounts are found on State and private lands. The most accessible examples are south of Saddle Road to the east of Puuhuluhulu.
The central concept of the Isomesic Savanna is of well to somewhat excessively drained, very shallow to very deep soils formed in young deposits of volcanic ash ranging from 200 to 3,000 years old. Annual air temperatures and rainfall create cool (isomesic), seasonally dry (ustic) soil conditions. However, some very young soils (mostly less than 1,000 years old) in cool but moist (udic) areas are also in this ecological site. As the soils in these moist areas develop over the coming centuries, they will come to support the same rain forest vegetation that surrounds them. The central concept is savanna with a sparse to open canopy of ohia lehua (Metrosideros polymorpha) trees 40 to 60 feet (12 to 18 meters) tall and a sparse secondary canopy of mountain pilo and other species 8 to 20 feet (3.5 to 6 meters) tall. There is a diverse understory of shrubs dominated by pukiawe (Styphelia tameiameiae) and aalii (Dodonaea viscosa). Kau silversword (Argyroxiphium kauense) was common in the past but is now limited to fenced enclosures due to grazing by mouflon sheep. Grass and sedge cover ranges from 5 to 70% and is dominated by alpine hairgrass (Deschampsia nubigena).
Associated sites
| VX159B01X500 |
Udic Forest F159BY500 Udic Forest borders R160XY006 Isomesic Savanna at lower elevations. The forest has higher rainfall and deeper soils, resulting in a tall overstory of ohia and koa trees and a dense understory of tree ferns. The occurrence of the inversion zone, which separates dry from wet climates at an elevation of about 6000', creates a fairly abrupt boundary between the Udic Forest and the Isomesic Savanna. The abruptness has possibly been exacerbated by historical grazing in the Isomesic Savanna along this boundary. |
|---|---|
| VX161B01X502 |
Kona Weather Udic Forest F161BY502 Kona Weather Udic Forest borders the Isomesic Savanna at lower elevations. The forest has higher rainfall, resulting in a tall overstory of ohia and koa trees and a dense understory of tree ferns. The occurrence of the inversion zone, which separates dry from wet climates at an elevation of about 6000', creates a fairly abrupt boundary between the Kona Weather Udic Forest and the Isomesic Savanna. The abruptness has probably been exacerbated by historical grazing in the Isomesic Savanna along this boundary. |
Similar sites
| VX161B01X001 |
Dry Ustic Isomesic Shrubland R161BY001 Dry Ustic Isomesic Shrubland occurs at similar elevations as the Isomesic Savanna, but is primarily on Hualalai and in the saddle between Hualalai and Mauna Loa. The ratio of annual rainfall to annual pan evaporation is lower in R161BY001 than in R160XY006, and sandalwood, mamane, and dryland kolea (Myrsine lanaiensis) are much more common there than in the Isomesic Savanna. |
|---|
Table 1. Dominant plant species
| Tree |
(1) Metrosideros polymorpha |
|---|---|
| Shrub |
(1) Styphelia tameiameiae |
| Herbaceous |
(1) Deschampsia nubigena |
Legacy ID
R160XY006HI
Physiographic features
This ecological site occurs on lava flows on mountain slopes of shield volcanoes. Lava flows are aa (loose, cobbly) or pahoehoe (smooth, relatively unbroken).
Table 2. Representative physiographic features
| Landforms |
(1)
Shield volcano
(2) Lava flow |
|---|---|
| Flooding frequency | None |
| Ponding frequency | None |
| Elevation | 3,500 – 8,000 ft |
| Slope | 2 – 20% |
| Water table depth | 60 in |
| Aspect | Aspect is not a significant factor |
Climatic features
Air temperature in Hawaii is buffered by the surrounding ocean so that the range in temperature through the year is narrow. This creates “iso-“ soil temperature regimes in which mean summer and winter temperatures differ by less than 6 degrees C (11 degrees F).
Hawaii lies within the trade wind zone. Significant amounts of moisture are picked up from the ocean by trade winds up to an altitude of more than 6000 feet (very roughly 2000 meters). As the trade winds from the northeast are forced up the mountains of the island their moisture condenses, creating rain on the windward slopes; the leeward side of the island receives little of this moisture.
Above approximately 6000 feet elevation there is a temperature inversion at the boundary between moist air and higher, drier air. Average annual temperatures decrease at a slower rate above the inversion than below it. Easily observed vegetation changes occur within a short distance at the inversion layer (Giambelluca and Schroeder 1998). Most of this ecological site lies above the inversion layer, accounting for the cool, dry climate that creates the typical vegetation found here. There are some areas of this ecological site found at lower elevations that have this characteristic vegetation, even though the climate is moister and warmer. These areas are on very young lava flows where little soil and vegetation development has occurred. These areas temporarily possess the characteristics of this ecological site, probably for a period of some hundreds of years.
Average annual precipitation ranges from 30 to 55 inches (750 to 1375 millimeters). Most of the precipitation falls from through November through April, with November and March being the wettest months. Average annual temperature ranges from 50 to 60 degrees F (10 to 15 degrees C). Annual pan evaporation ranges from 30 to 60 inches. The ratio of annual rainfall to annual pan evaporation ranges from 0.9 to 1.2. On some very young lava flows, the ratio can be as high as 1.4.
Table 3. Representative climatic features
| Frost-free period (average) | 357 days |
|---|---|
| Freeze-free period (average) | 362 days |
| Precipitation total (average) | 43 in |
Figure 1. Monthly average minimum and maximum temperature
Figure 2. Annual precipitation pattern
Figure 3. Annual average temperature pattern
Influencing water features
Ephemeral streams sometimes occur at junctions between lava flows after rainfall events.
Soil features
Parent materials consist of either (1) volcanic ash over pahoehoe lava, (2) basic volcanic ash and cinders over aa lava, (3) basic volcanic ash and cinders over pahoehoe lava, (4) basic volcanic ash over pahoehoe lava, (5) organic matter mixed with minor amounts of basic volcanic ash in aa lava, (6), organic matter mixed in aa lava, or (7) basaltic volcanic ash over aa lava.
Geomorphic surfaces are young, ranging from 200 to 3,000 years old.
Soil moisture regimes are primarily ustic. However, some soils on very young (hundreds of years old) lava flows have a udic moisture regime. Plant communities and soils on these very young udic soils mimic those on older ustic soils. With further soil development over additional hundreds of years, these plant communities can be expected to change to resemble the surrounding vegetation on older lava flows.
The volcanic ash soils of the Island of Hawaii are derived mostly from basaltic ash that varies relatively little in chemical composition (Hazlett and Hyndman 1996; Vitousek 2004). Most of these volcanic ash soils are classified as Andisols, which have these general management characteristics: ion exchange capacity that varies with pH, but mostly retaining anions such as nitrate; high phosphorus adsorption, which restricts phosphorus availability to plants; excellent physical properties (low bulk density, good friability, weak stickiness, stable soil aggregates) for cultivation, seedling emergence, and plant root growth; resistance to compaction and an ability to recover from compaction following repeated cycles of wetting and drying; and high capacity to hold water that is available to plants. These characteristics are due to the properties of the parent material, the clay-size noncrystalline materials formed by weathering, and the soil organic matter accumulated during soil formation (Shoji et al. 1993).
Andisols formed on pahoehoe lava can be very shallow to very deep. Pahoehoe is referred to as a “lithic contact,” which is a boundary between soil and underlying material that is coherent, continuous, difficult to dig with a spade, and contains few cracks that can be penetrated by roots (Soil Survey Staff 1999). Pahoehoe is typically very limiting to root penetration due to the spacing and size of cracks. However, this characteristic of pahoehoe is variable, and there are many instances of large trees growing on very shallow and shallow ash soils over pahoehoe.
The lava rock fragments that constitute aa range in size from gravel (2 mm to 76 mm, or up to 3 inches) to stones (250 mm to 600 mm, or 10 to 25 inches), but are primarily gravel and cobbles (76 mm to 250 mm, or 3 to 10 inches). Below the layer of rock fragments is massive lava called “bluerock.” The interstices between rock fragments of Andisols formed in aa are filled with soil from the surface to the blue rock at the bottom of the soil. Some Andisols in aa have few or no rock fragments in the upper horizons, while others may have large amounts of rock fragments in all horizons and on the soil surface.
Soils that are moderately deep (20 to 40 inches, or 50 to 100 cm) or deeper over underlying lava appear to present few or no limits on native, pasture, or weedy vegetation, and it seems to make no difference whether the lava rock is pahoehoe or aa. However, these soils may present some tillage difficulties when formed in aa and containing significant amounts of coarse rock fragments near the surface. Very shallow and shallow ash soils over pahoehoe are sometimes ripped by heavy equipment to break up the underlying lava and create a deeper rooting zone.
The organic soils of the Island of Hawaii are classified as Histosols. They were formed mainly in organic material consisting of highly decomposed leaves, twigs, and wood with small amounts of basic volcanic ash, cinders, and weathered lava; this is called highly decomposed parent material. Some of these soils contain slightly or moderately decomposed parent material, especially at or near the soil surface.
Not all organic soil material accumulates in or under water. Leaf litter may rest on lava rock or in gaps between rocks and support forest vegetation. For organic soils that contain adequately high amounts of organic carbon (see Soil Survey Staff 1999) and are saturated with water less than 30 days per year in a normal year, the material is referred to as litter or an O horizon. When saturated with water for 30 days or more, the material is called peat or muck (Soil Survey Staff 1999).
All of the Histosols on the Big Island are classified as “euic,” which means they have relatively high base saturation as indicated by a pH of 4.5 or higher; most Big Island Histosols have pH well above this minimum.
Histosols on pahoehoe lava tend to be shallow (less than 20 inches or 50 centimeters) or very shallow (less than 10 inches or 25 centimeters). Pahoehoe is referred to as a “lithic contact,” which is a boundary between soil and underlying material that is coherent, continuous, difficult to dig with a spade, and contains few cracks that can be penetrated by roots (Soil Survey Staff 1999). Pahoehoe is typically very limiting to root penetration due to the spacing and size of cracks. However, this characteristic of pahoehoe is variable, and there are many instances of large trees growing on very shallow and shallow soils over pahoehoe. When depth of soil to pahoehoe is less than 18 cm (7.2 inches), the soil is referred to as “micro.”
The lava rock fragments that constitute aa range in size from gravel (2 mm to 76 mm, or up to 3 inches) to stones (250 mm to 600 mm, or 10 to 25 inches), but are primarily gravel and cobbles (76 mm to 250 mm, or 3 to 10 inches). Below the layer of rock fragments is massive lava called “bluerock.” The interstices between rock fragments of Histosols formed in aa are filled with soil material from the surface to a particular depth, often moderately deep (20 to 40 inches, or 50 to 100 centimeters), but sometimes shallower or deeper depending on the soil series. Between this soil material-filled horizon and the bluerock the interstices contain little or no soil material. However, live roots are often present in this horizon. These soils can support abundant vegetation despite their unusual conformation. In order to observe the natural state of the soil, one must carefully disassemble the lava rock fragments so as not to allow the soil materials to fall into the gaps below.
Ripping and crushing lava by heavy machinery transforms these organic soils into Arents, which basically means sandy (the “Ar” or arenic; think of a sandy arena) soils with little or no natural horizon development (the “ents” or Entisols). Ripping pahoehoe lava eliminates the root-limiting layer of the lava. Crushing of ripped pahoehoe fragments or aa reduces the size of the fragments and the gaps between them and creates some finer, sand-sized particles. As much as 50% of the original organic matter can be lost in this process due to oxidation, but the resulting Arents are more suitable for agricultural operations. Arents are very susceptible to weed invasion, but there have been apparently successful attempts at restoration of native plant species.
Figure 4. Iwalani series. Mike Kolman, NRCS Soil Survey
Table 4. Representative soil features
| Parent material |
(1)
Basaltic volcanic ash
–
basalt
|
|---|---|
| Surface texture |
(1) Medial silt loam (2) Loam |
| Family particle size |
(1) Loamy |
| Drainage class | Well drained to somewhat excessively drained |
| Permeability class | Moderately slow to rapid |
| Soil depth | 2 – 72 in |
| Surface fragment cover <=3" | 20% |
| Surface fragment cover >3" | 80% |
| Available water capacity (0-40in) |
1.1 – 4.9 in |
| Calcium carbonate equivalent (0-40in) |
Not specified |
| Electrical conductivity (0-40in) |
2 mmhos/cm |
| Sodium adsorption ratio (0-40in) |
Not specified |
| Soil reaction (1:1 water) (0-40in) |
4.4 – 7.3 |
| Subsurface fragment volume <=3" (Depth not specified) |
70% |
| Subsurface fragment volume >3" (Depth not specified) |
95% |
Ecological dynamics
The information in this ecological site description (ESD), including the state-and-transition model (STM), was developed using archaeological and historical data, professional experience, and scientific studies. The information is representative of a complex set of plant communities. Not all scenarios or plants are included. Key indicator plants, animals, and ecological processes are described to inform land management decisions.
States and community phases within this ecological site were differentiated by inspection of data; ordination programs were not available. They were verified by professional consensus and consistent examples in the field.
This ecological site occurs on young lava flows in seasonally dry, cool regions of Mauna Loa volcano and, to a small extent, Hualalai volcano on the Island of Hawaii.
Natural Disturbances
This ecological site develops by primary succession on lava flows. The rate of soil and vegetation development on any given site is determined by the climate at the site’s elevation and situation relative to prevailing winds, the type of lava flow, depth of ash and cinder accumulation (if any), and age of the surface. This process is measured in centuries, and produces the variations seen across the ecological site.
Lava flows that cross this ecological site range are so recent that soil and vegetation development is nearly nonexistent. Lava flows that are not as recent, or that have climate and substrate characteristics favorable to rapid development, exhibit varying degrees of soil and vegetation development that fall short of being classified as soils. These sites are not included in this ecological site, even though they may have some of the characteristics of it.
Wildfires started by lightning or possibly lava flows rarely may affect this ecological site.
Before the arrival of humans, the only grazing animals on the island were land birds up to the size of large geese.
Human Disturbances
Human-related disturbances have been much more important than natural disturbances in this ecological site since the arrival of Polynesians and, later, Europeans. This is reflected in the State and Transition Model Diagram.
Humans arrived in the Hawaiian Islands 1200 to 1500 years ago. Their population gradually increased so that by 1600 AD at least 80% of all the lands in Hawaii below about 1500 feet (roughly 500 meters) in elevation had been extensively altered by humans (Kirch 1982); some pollen core data suggest that up to 100% of lowlands may have been altered (Athens 1997). By the time of European contact late in the 18th century, the Polynesians had developed high population densities and placed extensive areas under intensive agriculture (Cuddihy and Stone 1990).
Higher elevation area, such as this ecological site, would have been much less affected by the arrival of the Polynesians. The Polynesians did access these areas, as evidenced by archaeological remains. Also, there may have been impacts caused by factors such as inadvertently introduced plant diseases and seed predation by the introduced Pacific rat (Athens 1997).
After the arrival of Europeans, documentary evidence attests to accelerated and extensive deforestation, erosion, siltation, and changes in local weather patterns (Kirch 1983) due to more intensive land use, modern tools, and introduction of more plant, animal, and microbe species.
The Polynesians introduced dogs, Pacific rats, and small pigs to the islands. Cattle, sheep, horses, goats, and larger European pigs were introduced in the final decades of the 18th century. These animals ranged free on the islands, becoming very numerous and destructive by the early decades of the 19th century. Additionally, packs of feral dogs had become established, as confirmed by reports of their depredations on sheep. By 1851, records reported severe overstocking of pastures, lack of fences, and large numbers of feral livestock (Henke 1929).
Through the 20th and into the 21st centuries, increases in human populations with attendant land development, as well as accelerated introduction of non-native mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, invertebrates, plants, and microorganisms, have brought about dramatic changes to wild ecosystems in Hawaii. Much of this ecological site still appears to be fairly intact, although effects of human disturbance are visible.
The heaviest impacts in this ecological site have been caused by feral ungulates grazing the native grasses and browsing the native shrubs and trees, none of which evolved with land mammals of any kind except for a native bat. Domestic cattle and sheep have been grazed on some areas. Additionally, trails through this ecological site formerly were used to move large herds of domestic livestock from on side of the island to another. The most notable impact of introduced ungulates was the near-extinction of the Kau silversword (Argyroxiphium kauense), which was saved by the timely construction of fences by a ranch manager.
State and transition model
Figure 5. State and Transition Model Diagram R160XY006
More interactive model formats are also available.
View Interactive Models
More interactive model formats are also available.
View Interactive Models
Click on state and transition labels to scroll to the respective text
Ecosystem states
State 1 submodel, plant communities
State 2 submodel, plant communities
State 1
Reference State
This state consists of one community phase. Much of this ecological site is of marginal value as grazing land. However, there are disturbances by introduced ungulates that result in loss of native species or reductions in their abundance that cause this state to transition to State 2 Grazed and Browsed.
Community 1.1
Ohi`a lehua - alpine mirrorplant (mountain pilo)/a`ali`i - pukiawe/alpine hairgrass
Figure 6. Reference community phase. 11/12/04 D Clausnitzer MU407
Figure 7. Kau silversword in reference community phase. 12/16/04 D Clausnitzer MU519
Figure 8. Pond in depression on Ainahou soil. 10/26/04 D Clausnitzer MU627
Figure 9. Closeup of pond on Ainahou soil. 10/26/04 D Clausnitzer MU627
Figure 10. This ES complexed with ES F159AY500.
Figure 11. Closeup on young pahoehoe. D Clausnitzer generic photo
This ecological site is savanna with a sparse to open canopy of trees 40 to 60 feet (12 to 18 meters) tall and a sparse secondary canopy of trees 8 to 20 feet (2.5 to 12 meters) tall. There is a diverse understory of shrubs. Grass/grasslike canopy cover ranges from 5 to 70 percent. Ferns are common.
Forest overstory. The overstory consists of primarily of ohia lehua (Metrosideros polymorpha) and, in some places, koa (Acacia koa). The secondary stratum consists of mountain pilo or alpine mirrorplant (Coprosma montana). Other small tree species, including naio (Myoporum sandwicense), mamane (Sophora chrysophylla), and mountain sandalwood (Santalum paniculatum), occur locally but are not ubiquitous across the ecological site. Koa, kolea lau nui (Myrsine lessertiana), olapa (Cheirodendron trigynum), kawau or Hawaiian holly (Ilex anomala), and kolea lau lii (Myrsine sandwicensis) occur near or below the climatic inversion layer where this ecological site borders on wet forests.
Forest understory. The most abundant shrubs are pukiawe (Styphelia tameiameiae), aalii or Florida hopbush (Dodonaea viscosa), aiakanene (Coprosma ernodeoides), and ulei or Hawaii hawthorn (Osteomeles anthyllidifolia). Kau silversword was common in the past but is now limited to fenced enclosures due to the presence of introduced mouflon sheep. Amaumau fern (Sadleria cyatheoides), western brackenfern (Pteridium aquilinum), and alpine woodfern (Dryopteris wallichiana) are the most common ferns. The most abundant grasses/grasslikes are alpine hairgrass (Deschampsia nubigena), pili uka (Trisetum glomeratum), Gaudichaud’s sawsedge (Morelotia gahniiformis), and Oahu sedge (Carex wahuensis).
Figure 12. Annual production by plant type (representative values) or group (midpoint values)
Table 5. Ground cover
| Tree foliar cover | 1-2% |
|---|---|
| Shrub/vine/liana foliar cover | 5-30% |
| Grass/grasslike foliar cover | 1-30% |
| Forb foliar cover | 1-5% |
| Non-vascular plants | 1-30% |
| Biological crusts | 1-5% |
| Litter | 5-50% |
| Surface fragments >0.25" and <=3" | 1-80% |
| Surface fragments >3" | 1-30% |
| Bedrock | 1-20% |
| Water | 0-1% |
| Bare ground | 1-10% |
Table 6. Canopy structure (% cover)
| Height Above Ground (ft) | Tree | Shrub/Vine | Grass/ Grasslike |
Forb |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| <0.5 | 1-1% | 1-5% | 1-20% | 1-5% |
| >0.5 <= 1 | 1-1% | 1-5% | 1-20% | 1-1% |
| >1 <= 2 | 1-1% | 1-20% | 1-40% | – |
| >2 <= 4.5 | 1-1% | 5-60% | – | – |
| >4.5 <= 13 | 1-10% | 1-5% | – | – |
| >13 <= 40 | 1-25% | – | – | – |
| >40 <= 80 | 1-20% | – | – | – |
| >80 <= 120 | – | – | – | – |
| >120 | – | – | – | – |
Figure 13. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). HI1611, 161A-Isomesic community growth curve. For the isomesic soil temperature regime within MLRA 161A, this is a generalized growth curve for all plants..
| Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| J | F | M | A | M | J | J | A | S | O | N | D |
| 5 | 5 | 15 | 15 | 10 | 2 | 3 | 5 | 5 | 10 | 15 | 10 |
State 2
Grazed and Browsed State
This state consists of one community phase. It differs from State 1 Reference by having lower diversity and production of native species due to the effects of introduced ungulates and by having been invaded by introduced plant species.
Community 2.1
Ohi`a lehua/a`ali`i - pukiawe/alpine hairgrass - sweet vernalgrass
Figure 14. Grazed area showing low wet spot with rushes. D Clausnitzer generic photo
Figure 15. Kapapala mauka grazed site. D Clausnitzer generic photo
The original savanna structure is intact. Some native species in the secondary stratum, shrub group, and fern group have been lost or reduced in abundance. The grass/grasslike group is shared by native and introduced species, and introduced forbs are widespread.
Forest overstory. The original ohia lehua overstory is largely intact. Mountain pilo (Coprosma montana) has been greatly reduced in abundance by heavy browsing. Mamani and mountain sandalwood also have been reduced in abundance. Introduced faya tree or firetree (Morella faya) has invaded some areas.
Forest understory. The more common native shrub species from the Reference State are present, but ulei has been browsed heavily in many areas. Kau silversword, lava dubautia (Dubautia ciliolata), and the rare vine akala (Rubus macrei) have been lost. The native forb species Hawaii plantain (Plantago hawaiensis), puaakuhinia (Astelia menziesiana), and ukiuki (Dianella sandwicensis) have been lost. Hairy cat’s ear (Hypochaeris radicata) is the most common introduced forb. Most of the native fern species from the Reference State are present. The grass/grasslike group consists of a mixture of native grasses from the Reference State and introduced grasses, with sweet vernalgrass (Anthoxanthum odoratum), common velvetgrass (Holcus lanatus), and meadow ricegrass or weeping grass (Microlaena stipoides) being most common.
Figure 16. Annual production by plant type (representative values) or group (midpoint values)
Table 7. Ground cover
| Tree foliar cover | 1-2% |
|---|---|
| Shrub/vine/liana foliar cover | 5-30% |
| Grass/grasslike foliar cover | 1-30% |
| Forb foliar cover | 1-5% |
| Non-vascular plants | 1-30% |
| Biological crusts | 1-5% |
| Litter | 5-50% |
| Surface fragments >0.25" and <=3" | 1-80% |
| Surface fragments >3" | 1-30% |
| Bedrock | 1-20% |
| Water | 0-1% |
| Bare ground | 1-10% |
Table 8. Canopy structure (% cover)
| Height Above Ground (ft) | Tree | Shrub/Vine | Grass/ Grasslike |
Forb |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| <0.5 | 1-1% | 1-5% | 1-20% | 1-5% |
| >0.5 <= 1 | 1-1% | 1-5% | 1-20% | 1-1% |
| >1 <= 2 | 1-1% | 1-20% | 1-40% | – |
| >2 <= 4.5 | 1-1% | 5-60% | – | – |
| >4.5 <= 13 | 1-10% | 1-5% | – | – |
| >13 <= 40 | 1-25% | – | – | – |
| >40 <= 80 | 1-20% | – | – | – |
| >80 <= 120 | – | – | – | – |
| >120 | – | – | – | – |
Transition T1A
State 1 to 2
This state transitions to State 2 Grazed and Browsed by reduction or loss of native species due to grazing and browsing by introduced ungulates and by invasion by introduced plant species.
Restoration pathway R2A
State 2 to 1
This state may be restored to State 1 Reference State by excluding all ungulates with a suitably designed fence. Spot weed removal must be done initially and continued in the long term. Missing native plant species must be reintroduced.
Additional community tables
Table 9. Community 1.1 plant community composition
| Group | Common name | Symbol | Scientific name | Annual production (lb/acre) | Foliar cover (%) | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
Grass/Grasslike
|
||||||
| 1 | Cool season native bunchgrass | 1500–3000 | ||||
| alpine hairgrass | DENU6 | Deschampsia nubigena | 1500–3000 | – | ||
| pili uka | TRGL3 | Trisetum glomeratum | 50–125 | – | ||
| 2 | Native grasslike | 50–125 | ||||
| Gaudichaud's sawsedge | MOGA | Morelotia gahniiformis | 25–75 | – | ||
| Oahu sedge | CAWA | Carex wahuensis | 5–50 | – | ||
| Hawai'i woodrush | LUHA2 | Luzula hawaiiensis | 1–5 | – | ||
| Polynesian twigrush | MAAN | Machaerina angustifolia | 1–5 | – | ||
|
Forb
|
||||||
| 3 | Native forb | 5–25 | ||||
| pua'akuhinia | ASME4 | Astelia menziesiana | 5–10 | – | ||
| beach strawberry | FRCH | Fragaria chiloensis | 5–10 | – | ||
| 'uki'uki | DISA6 | Dianella sandwicensis | 1–5 | – | ||
| 'ena'ena | PSSAH2 | Pseudognaphalium sandwicensium var. hawaiiense | 1–5 | – | ||
| Hawai'i plantain | PLHA2 | Plantago hawaiensis | 1 | – | ||
| Hawai'ian buttercup | RAHA2 | Ranunculus hawaiensis | 0 | – | ||
| Hawai'i blacksnakeroot | SASA9 | Sanicula sandwicensis | 0 | – | ||
| narrowleaf stenogyne | STAN3 | Stenogyne angustifolia | 0 | – | ||
| Hawai'i vetch | VIME | Vicia menziesii | 0 | – | ||
| 4 | Native fern | 10–25 | ||||
| Old World forkedfern | DILI | Dicranopteris linearis | 1–10 | – | ||
| alpine woodfern | DRWA | Dryopteris wallichiana | 1–10 | – | ||
| ekaha | ELHI3 | Elaphoglossum hirtum | 1–10 | – | ||
| western brackenfern | PTAQ | Pteridium aquilinum | 1–10 | – | ||
| amaumau fern | SACY3 | Sadleria cyatheoides | 1–10 | – | ||
| dotted polypody | POPE5 | Polypodium pellucidum | 1–5 | – | ||
| staghorn clubmoss | LYCE2 | Lycopodiella cernua | 1–5 | – | ||
| royal tonguefern | ELCR2 | Elaphoglossum crassifolium | 1–5 | – | ||
| Trans-Pecos cliffbrake | PETE2 | Pellaea ternifolia | 1 | – | ||
| maidenhair spleenwort | ASTR2 | Asplenium trichomanes | 1 | – | ||
| diamond spleenwort | ASRH3 | Asplenium rhomboideum | 0 | – | ||
|
Shrub/Vine
|
||||||
| 5 | Native shrub | 500–2000 | ||||
| Florida hopbush | DOVI | Dodonaea viscosa | 150–750 | – | ||
| pukiawe | STTA | Styphelia tameiameiae | 150–750 | – | ||
| Hawai'i hawthorn | OSAN | Osteomeles anthyllidifolia | 50–500 | – | ||
| 'aiakanene | COER3 | Coprosma ernodeoides | 100–250 | – | ||
| ohelo 'ai | VARE | Vaccinium reticulatum | 10–100 | – | ||
| Hawai'i false ohelo | WIPH2 | Wikstroemia phillyreifolia | 5–25 | – | ||
| rough dubautia | DUSC | Dubautia scabra | 1–25 | – | ||
| hinahina | GECU | Geranium cuneatum | 5–25 | – | ||
| lava dubautia | DUCI | Dubautia ciliolata | 1–10 | – | ||
| kau silversword | ARKA2 | Argyroxiphium kauense | 1–10 | – | ||
| 'akala | RUMA6 | Rubus macraei | 1–5 | – | ||
| Hawai'i catchfly | SIHA5 | Silene hawaiiensis | 0 | – | ||
|
Tree
|
||||||
| 6 | Native tree | 100–250 | ||||
| 'ohi'a lehua | MEPO5 | Metrosideros polymorpha | 100–250 | – | ||
| alpine mirrorplant | COMO3 | Coprosma montana | 10–50 | – | ||
| naio | MYSA | Myoporum sandwicense | 1–25 | – | ||
| kokea lau li'i | MYSA2 | Myrsine sandwicensis | 1–25 | – | ||
| koa | ACKO | Acacia koa | 5–25 | – | ||
| mamani | SOCH | Sophora chrysophylla | 1–20 | – | ||
| kolea lau nui | MYLE2 | Myrsine lessertiana | 1–10 | – | ||
| Hawai'i holly | ILAN | Ilex anomala | 1–5 | – | ||
| mountain sandalwood | SAPA7 | Santalum paniculatum | 1–5 | – | ||
| olapalapa | CHTR2 | Cheirodendron trigynum | 1–5 | – | ||
Table 10. Community 2.1 plant community composition
| Group | Common name | Symbol | Scientific name | Annual production (lb/acre) | Foliar cover (%) | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
Grass/Grasslike
|
||||||
| 1 | Native cool season grass | 100–1500 | ||||
| alpine hairgrass | DENU6 | Deschampsia nubigena | 100–1500 | – | ||
| pili uka | TRGL3 | Trisetum glomeratum | 1–5 | – | ||
| 2 | Introduced grass | 200–1500 | ||||
| sweet vernalgrass | ANOD | Anthoxanthum odoratum | 100–500 | – | ||
| common velvetgrass | HOLA | Holcus lanatus | 100–500 | – | ||
| weeping grass | MIST | Microlaena stipoides | 10–200 | – | ||
| annual bluegrass | POAN | Poa annua | 1–100 | – | ||
| Colombian bluestem | SCCO10 | Schizachyrium condensatum | 1–100 | – | ||
| smut grass | SPIN4 | Sporobolus indicus | 1–100 | – | ||
| broomsedge bluestem | ANVI2 | Andropogon virginicus | 1–100 | – | ||
| molassesgrass | MEMI2 | Melinis minutiflora | 1–50 | – | ||
| Cuming's lovegrass | ERCU5 | Eragrostis cumingii | 1–10 | – | ||
| 3 | Native grasslike | 1–10 | ||||
| Oahu sedge | CAWA | Carex wahuensis | 1–10 | – | ||
| Gaudichaud's sawsedge | MOGA | Morelotia gahniiformis | 1–10 | – | ||
| Polynesian twigrush | MAAN | Machaerina angustifolia | 1–5 | – | ||
| Hawai'i woodrush | LUHA2 | Luzula hawaiiensis | 1 | – | ||
| 4 | Introduced grasslike | 1 | ||||
| densetuft hairsedge | BUCA2 | Bulbostylis capillaris | 1 | – | ||
|
Forb
|
||||||
| 5 | Native forb | 1–15 | ||||
| beach strawberry | FRCH | Fragaria chiloensis | 1–10 | – | ||
| 'ena'ena | PSSAH2 | Pseudognaphalium sandwicensium var. hawaiiense | 1–5 | – | ||
| 6 | Introduced forb | 50–250 | ||||
| hairy cat's ear | HYRA3 | Hypochaeris radicata | 10–100 | – | ||
| Madagascar ragwort | SEMA15 | Senecio madagascariensis | 1–50 | – | ||
| spreading snakeroot | AGRI2 | Ageratina riparia | 1–50 | – | ||
| Japanese thimbleweed | ANHU | Anemone hupehensis | 1–25 | – | ||
| bamboo orchid | ARGR6 | Arundina graminifolia | 1–10 | – | ||
| father-and-child plant | EUJA6 | Euchiton japonicus | 1–10 | – | ||
| bull thistle | CIVU | Cirsium vulgare | 1–5 | – | ||
| redflower ragleaf | CRCR9 | Crassocephalum crepidioides | 1 | – | ||
| Deptford pink | DIAR | Dianthus armeria | 1 | – | ||
| 7 | Native fern | 1–25 | ||||
| western brackenfern | PTAQ | Pteridium aquilinum | 1–25 | – | ||
| amaumau fern | SACY3 | Sadleria cyatheoides | 1–10 | – | ||
| Old World forkedfern | DILI | Dicranopteris linearis | 1–5 | – | ||
| alpine woodfern | DRWA | Dryopteris wallichiana | 1–5 | – | ||
| royal tonguefern | ELCR2 | Elaphoglossum crassifolium | 1 | – | ||
| ekaha | ELHI3 | Elaphoglossum hirtum | 1 | – | ||
| staghorn clubmoss | LYCE2 | Lycopodiella cernua | 1 | – | ||
| Trans-Pecos cliffbrake | PETE2 | Pellaea ternifolia | 1 | – | ||
| dotted polypody | POPE5 | Polypodium pellucidum | 1 | – | ||
| maidenhair spleenwort | ASTR2 | Asplenium trichomanes | 1 | – | ||
|
Shrub/Vine
|
||||||
| 8 | Native shrub | 1000–2000 | ||||
| Florida hopbush | DOVI | Dodonaea viscosa | 250–900 | – | ||
| pukiawe | STTA | Styphelia tameiameiae | 250–900 | – | ||
| Hawai'i hawthorn | OSAN | Osteomeles anthyllidifolia | 10–100 | – | ||
| 'aiakanene | COER3 | Coprosma ernodeoides | 1–100 | – | ||
| ohelo 'ai | VARE | Vaccinium reticulatum | 1–50 | – | ||
| Hawai'i false ohelo | WIPH2 | Wikstroemia phillyreifolia | 1–50 | – | ||
| rough dubautia | DUSC | Dubautia scabra | 1–5 | – | ||
| hinahina | GECU | Geranium cuneatum | 1 | – | ||
| 9 | Introduced shrub/vine | 1–10 | ||||
| cure for all | PLCA10 | Pluchea carolinensis | 1–10 | – | ||
| sawtooth blackberry | RUAR2 | Rubus argutus | 1–10 | – | ||
|
Tree
|
||||||
| 10 | Native tree | 50–250 | ||||
| 'ohi'a lehua | MEPO5 | Metrosideros polymorpha | 100–250 | – | ||
| naio | MYSA | Myoporum sandwicense | 1–10 | – | ||
| kokea lau li'i | MYSA2 | Myrsine sandwicensis | 1–5 | – | ||
| alpine mirrorplant | COMO3 | Coprosma montana | 1–5 | – | ||
| Hawai'i holly | ILAN | Ilex anomala | 1 | – | ||
| kolea lau nui | MYLE2 | Myrsine lessertiana | 1 | – | ||
| olapalapa | CHTR2 | Cheirodendron trigynum | 1 | – | ||
| mountain sandalwood | SAPA7 | Santalum paniculatum | 1 | – | ||
| mamani | SOCH | Sophora chrysophylla | 1 | – | ||
| 11 | Introduced tree | 1–10 | ||||
| firetree | MOFA | Morella faya | 1–10 | – | ||
Interpretations
Animal community
Native Wildlife
This ecological site provides habitat for the native Hawaiian hawk or io (Buteo solitarius), nene (Branta sandvicensis), and Hawaiian owl or pueo (Asio flammeus spp. sandwichensis).
A large number of native bird species have gone extinct both before and after European contact.
Introduced Wildlife
This ecological site provides habitat to a variety of introduced birds. Species such as wild turkey (Meleagris gallopavo), ring-necked pheasant (Phasianus colchicus), Erckel’s francolin (Pternistis erckelii), chuckar partridge (Alectoris chukar), and California quail (Callipepla californica) are considered to be game birds.
Feral pigs and mouflon sheep (Ovis orientalis orientalis) are common. They provide hunting opportunities but are very destructive to native vegetation. Public sport hunting typically does not have a major impact on their populations; exclusion by fences followed by intensive control measures are necessary to eliminate feral ungulates.
Introduced wildlife species are able to utilize both community phases within the ecological site.
Hydrological functions
Many soils in this ecological site are very shallow or shallow over pahoehoe. However, due to the relatively dry climate and generally intact vegetation structure, runoff is not a problem.
On Ainahou soils near the old Saddle Road, depressions in the underlying lava hold shallow water for long periods of time, creating a landscape with scattered, small ponds.
Recreational uses
Access to much of this ecological site is limited. Hiking, bird watching, and hunting are recreational uses.
Wood products
There are no wood products obtained from this ecological site.
Other products
None.
Other information
Definitions
These definitions have been greatly simplified for brevity and do not cover every aspect of each topic.
Aa lava: A type of basaltic lava having a rough, jagged, clinkery surface and a vesicular interior.
Alluvial: Materials or processes associated with transportation and/or deposition by running water.
Aquic soil moisture regime: A regime in which the soil is free of dissolved oxygen because it is saturated by water. This regime typically exists in bogs or swamps.
Aridic soil moisture regime: A regime in which defined parts of the soil are, in normal years, dry for more than half of the growing season and moist for less than 90 consecutive days during the growing season. In Hawaii it is associated with hot, dry areas with plants such as kiawe, wiliwili, and buffelgrass. The terms aridic and torric are basically the same.
Ash field: a land area covered by a thick or distinctive deposit of volcanic ash that can be traced to a specific source and has well defined boundaries. The term “ash flow” is erroneously used in the Physiographic section of this ESD due to a flaw in the national database.
Ashy: A “soil texture modifier” for volcanic ash soils having a water content at the crop wilting point of less than 30 percent; a soil that holds relatively less water than “medial” and “hydrous” soils.
Available water capacity: The amount of soil water available to plants to the depth of the first root-restricting layer.
Basal area or basal cover: The cross sectional area of the stem or stems of a plant or of all plants in a stand.
Blue rock: The dense, hard, massive lava that forms the inner core of an aa lava flow.
Bulk density: the weight of dry soil per unit of volume. Lower bulk density indicates a greater amount of pore space that can hold water and air in a soil.
CaCO3 equivalent: The amount of free lime in a soil. Free lime exists as solid material and typically occurs in regions with a dry climate.
Canopy cover: The percentage of ground covered by the vertical projection downward of the outermost perimeter of the spread of plant foliage. Small openings within the canopy are included.
Community pathway: A description of the causes of shifts between community phases. A community pathway is reversible and is attributable to succession, natural disturbances, short-term climatic variation, and facilitating practices, such as grazing management.
Community phase: A unique assemblage of plants and associated dynamic soil properties within a state.
Dominant species: Plant species or species groups that exert considerable influence upon a community due to size, abundance, or cover.
Drainage class: The frequency and duration of a water table in a soil. There are seven drainage classes, ranging from “excessively drained” (soils with very rare or very deep water tables) to “well drained” (soils that provide ample water for plant growth but are not so wet as to inhibit root growth) to “very poorly drained” (soils with a water table at or near the surface during much of the growing season that inhibits growth of most plants).
Electrical conductivity (EC): A measure of the salinity of a soil. The standard unit is deciSiemens per meter (dS/m), which is numerically equivalent to millimhos per centimeter (mmhos/cm). An EC greater than about 4 dS/m indicates a salinity level that is unfavorable to growth of most plants.
Friability: A soil consistency term pertaining to the ease of crumbling of soils.
Hydrous: A “soil texture modifier” for volcanic ash soils having a water content at the crop wilting point of 100 percent or more; a soil that holds more water than “medial” or “ashy” soils.
Ion exchange capacity: The ability of soil materials such as clay or organic matter to retain ions (which may be plant nutrients) and to release those ions for uptake by roots.
Isohyperthermic soil temperature regime: A regime in which mean annual soil temperature is 72 degrees F (22 degrees C) or higher and mean summer and mean winter soil temperatures differ by less than 11 degrees F (6 degrees C) at a specified depth.
Isomesic soil temperature regime: A regime in which mean annual soil temperature is 47 degrees F (8 degrees C) or higher but lower than 59 degrees F (15 degrees C) and mean summer and mean winter soil temperatures differ by less than 11 degrees F (6 degrees C) at a specified depth.
Isothermic soil temperature regime: A regime in which mean annual soil temperature is 59 degrees F (15 degrees C) or higher but lower than 72 degrees F (22 degrees C) and mean summer and mean winter soil temperatures differ by less than 11 degrees F (6 degrees C) at a specified depth.
Kipuka: An area of land surrounded by younger (more recent) lava. Soils and plant communities within a kipuka are older than, and often quite different from, those on the surrounding surfaces.
Major Land Resource Area (MLRA): A geographic area defined by NRCS that is characterized by a particular pattern of soils, climate, water resources, and land uses. The island of Hawaii contains nine MLRAs, some of which also occur on other islands in the state.
Makai: a Hawaiian word meaning “toward the sea.”
Mauka: a Hawaiian word meaning “toward the mountain” or “inland.”
Medial: A “soil texture modifier” for volcanic ash soils having a water content at the crop wilting point of 30 to 100 percent; a soil that holds an amount of water intermediate to “hydrous” or “ashy” soils.
Naturalized plant community: A community dominated by adapted, introduced species. It is a relatively stable community resulting from secondary succession after disturbance. Most grasslands in Hawaii are in this category.
Pahoehoe lava: A type of basaltic lava with a smooth, billowy, or rope-like surface and vesicular interior.
Parent material: Unconsolidated and chemically weathered material from which a soil is developed.
Perudic soil moisture regime: A very wet regime found where precipitation exceeds evapotranspiration in all months of normal years. On the island of Hawaii, this regime is found on top of Kohala and on parts of the windward side of Mauna Kea.
pH: The numerical expression of the relative acidity or alkalinity of a soil sample. A pH of 7 is neutral; a pH below 7 is acidic and a pH above 7 is basic.
Phosphorus adsorption: The ability of soil materials to tightly retain phosphorous ions, which are a plant nutrient. Some volcanic ash soils retain phosphorus so strongly that it is partly unavailable to plants.
Reference community phase: The phase exhibiting the characteristics of the reference state and containing the full complement of plant species that historically occupied the site. It is the community phase used to classify an ecological site.
Reference state: A state that describes the ecological potential and natural or historical range of variability of an ecological site.
Restoration pathway: A term describing the environmental conditions and practices that are required to recover a state that has undergone a transition.
Sodium adsorption ratio (SAR): A measure of the amount of dissolved sodium relative to calcium and magnesium in the soil water. SAR values higher than 13 create soil conditions unfavorable to most plants.
Soil moisture regime: A term referring to the presence or absence either of ground water or of water held at a tension of less than 1500 kPa (the crop wilting point) in the soil or in specific horizons during periods of the year.
Soil temperature regime: A defined class based on mean annual soil temperature and on differences between summer and winter temperatures at a specified depth.
Soil reaction: Numerical expression in pH units of the relative acidity or alkalinity or a soil.
State: One or more community phases and their soil properties that interact with the abiotic and biotic environment to produce persistent functional and structural attributes associated with a characteristic range of variability.
State-and-transition model: A method used to display information about relationships between vegetation, soil, animals, hydrology, disturbances, and management actions on an ecological site.
Torric soil moisture regime: See Aridic soil moisture regime.
Transition: A term describing the biotic or abiotic variables or events that contribute to loss of state resilience and result in shifts between states.
Udic soil moisture regime: A regime in which the soil is not dry in any part for as long as 90 cumulative days in normal years, and so provides ample moisture for plants. In Hawaii it is associated with forests in which hapuu (tree ferns) are usually moderately to highly abundant.
Ustic soil moisture regime: A regime in which moisture is limited but present at a time when conditions are suitable for plant growth. In Hawaii it usually is associated with dry forests and subalpine shrublands.
Supporting information
Other references
Armstrong RW. 1973. Atlas of Hawaii. University of Hawai`i Press, Honolulu.
Athens JS. Ch. 12 Hawaiian Native Lowland Vegetation in Prehistory in Historical Ecology in the Pacific Islands – Prehistoric Environmental and Landscape Change. Kirch PV and TL Hunt, eds. 1997. Yale U. Press, New Haven.
Burney DA, HF James, LP Burney, SL Olson, W Kikuchi, WL Wagner, M Burney, D McCloskey, D Kikuchi, FV Grady, R Gage II, and R Nishek. 2001. Fossil evidence for a diverse biota from Kauai and tis transformation since human arrival. Ecological Monographs 71:615-641.
Craighill ES and EG Handy. 1991. Native Planters in Old Hawaii – Their Life, Lore, and Environment. Bernice P. Bishop Museum Bulletin 233, Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu, HI
Cuddihy LW and CP Stone. 1990. Alteration of Native Hawaiian Vegetation: Effects of Humans, Their Activities and Introductions. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Cooperative National Park Resources Study Unit.
Dougill S and T Rogers. Plants of the Subalpine Forests of Mauna Kea. USGS-BRD, PIERCE, Kilauea Field Station, PO Box 44, HAVO, HI 96718
Hazlett RW and DW Hyndman. 1996. Roadside Geology of Hawaii. Mountain Press Publishing Company, Missoula MT.
Henke LA. 1929. A Survey of Livestock in Hawaii. Research Publication No. 5. University of Hawaii, Honolulu.
Jacobi JD. 1989. Vegetation Maps of the Upland Plant Communities on the Islands of Hawaii, Maui, Molokai, and Lanai. Technical Report 68. Cooperative National Park Resources Studies Unit, University of Hawaii at Manoa and National Park Service.
Kirch PV. 1982. The impact of the prehistoric Polynesians in the Hawaiian ecosystem. Pacific Science 36(1):1-14.
Kirch PV. 1985. Feathered Gods and Fishhooks: An Introduction to Hawaiian Archaeology and Prehistory. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.
Kirch PV. 2000. On the Road of the Winds: An Archaeological History of the Pacific Islands Before European Contact. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Little EL Jr. and RG Skolmen. 1989. Common Forest Trees of Hawaii (Native and Introduced). US Department of Agriculture-US Forest Service Agriculture Handbook No. 679. (out of print). Available at www.fs.fed.us/psw/publications/documents/misc/ah679.pdf
Loh RK. 2004. Complete vegetation map of Hawaii Volcanoes National park below 8,000 ft elevation. US National Park Service.
Mueller-Dombois D and FR Fosberg. 1998. Vegetation of the Tropical Pacific Islands. Springer-Verlag New York, Inc.
Palmer DD. 2003. Hawaii’s Ferns and Fern Allies. University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu.
Pratt HD. 1998. A Pocket Guide to Hawaii’s Trees and Shrubs. Mutual Publishing, Honolulu.
Ripperton JC and EY Hosaka. 1942. Vegetation zones of Hawaii. Hawaii Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 89:1-60.
Rock JF. The Indigenous Trees of the Hawaiian Islands. 1st edition 1913, reprinted 1974, Charles E. Tuttle Company, Rutland, VT and Tokyo, Japan.
Shoji SD, M Nanzyo, and R Dahlgren. 1993. Volcanic Ash Soils: Genesis, Properties and Utilization. Elsevier, New York.
Sohmer SH and R Gustafson. 2000. Plants and Flowers of Hawaii. University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu.
Steadman DW. 1995. Prehistoric extinctions of Pacific island birds: biodiversity meets zooarchaeology. Science 267:1123-1131.
USDA-NRCS-PIA T&E Species GIS files. Not publicly available.
USDI-USGS. 2006. A GAP Analysis of Hawaii. Final Report and Data.
Vitousek P. 2004. Nutrient Cycling and Limitation: Hawaii as a Model Ecosystem. Princeton University Press, Princeton and Oxford.
Wagner WL, DR Herbst, and SH Sohmer. 1999. Manual of the Flowering Plants of Hawaii, Revised Edition. Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu.
Whistler, WA. 1995. Wayside Plants of the Islands: a Guide to the Lowland Flora of the Pacific Islands. Isle Botanica, Honolulu.
Contributors
David Clausnitzer
Loretta Metz
Joseph May
Acknowledgments
Assistance, advice, review, and/or insights:
Mick Castillo
Michael Constantinides, NRCS-PIA
Susan Cordell, USFS
Gordon Cran, Kapapala Ranch
David Leonard, volunteer
JB Friday, UH Forestry Extension
Rick Gordon
Basil Hansen, The Nature Conservancy
Jennifer Higashino, USFWS and NRCS
Flint Hughes, USFS
Chris Jasper, NRCS Soil Survey
Mel Johansen, The Nature Conservancy
Kathy Kawakami, US Army Pohakuloa Training Ground
Rhonda Loh, Volcanoes National Park
Kamehameha Schools/Bishop Estate
Miles Nakahara, Hawaii DOFAW
Laura Nelson, The Nature Conservancy and NRCS
Patrick Niemeyer, NRCS Soil Survey
Billy Paris, rancher
John Pipan
Jon Price, USGS
John Replogle, The Nature Conservancy
Paul Scowcroft, USFS
Earl Spence, grazing consultant
Jim Thain
Mike Tomich
Quentin Tomich
Tim Tunison, Volcanoes National Park
Jill Wagner, consultant, Future Forests
Rick Warschauer
Rangeland health reference sheet
Interpreting Indicators of Rangeland Health is a qualitative assessment protocol used to determine ecosystem condition based on benchmark characteristics described in the Reference Sheet. A suite of 17 (or more) indicators are typically considered in an assessment. The ecological site(s) representative of an assessment location must be known prior to applying the protocol and must be verified based on soils and climate. Current plant community cannot be used to identify the ecological site.
| Author(s)/participant(s) | Loretta J. Metz; David Clausnitzer |
|---|---|
| Contact for lead author | Loretta.Metz@hi.usda.gov |
| Date | 01/13/2009 |
| Approved by | |
| Approval date | |
| Composition (Indicators 10 and 12) based on | Annual Production |
Indicators
-
Number and extent of rills:
None -
Presence of water flow patterns:
None -
Number and height of erosional pedestals or terracettes:
None -
Bare ground from Ecological Site Description or other studies (rock, litter, lichen, moss, plant canopy are not bare ground):
1 to 10% bare ground is expected. -
Number of gullies and erosion associated with gullies:
None -
Extent of wind scoured, blowouts and/or depositional areas:
None -
Amount of litter movement (describe size and distance expected to travel):
Litter does not commonly move on this site, unless there is an unusually heavy rainfall event. If a heavy rainfall occurs, the smaller litter particles (eg, pukiawe and mamane leaves) may travel until they encounter a lava obstacle and are trapped. -
Soil surface (top few mm) resistance to erosion (stability values are averages - most sites will show a range of values):
For the volcanic ash soils on this site, the stability values will range from 1 to 3.
For the organic soils on this site (highly decomposed plant materials), the stability values will range from 2 to 4. -
Soil surface structure and SOM content (include type of structure and A-horizon color and thickness):
-
Effect of community phase composition (relative proportion of different functional groups) and spatial distribution on infiltration and runoff:
No effect on infiltration and runoff. -
Presence and thickness of compaction layer (usually none; describe soil profile features which may be mistaken for compaction on this site):
None -
Functional/Structural Groups (list in order of descending dominance by above-ground annual-production or live foliar cover using symbols: >>, >, = to indicate much greater than, greater than, and equal to):
Dominant:
Native shrubs = native cool-season bunchgrasses >>Sub-dominant:
Native trees > native grass-likes.Other:
Additional:
-
Amount of plant mortality and decadence (include which functional groups are expected to show mortality or decadence):
Plant mortality is low. These are long-lived plant communities. Decadence is surprisingly low in this harsh environment. -
Average percent litter cover (%) and depth ( in):
-
Expected annual annual-production (this is TOTAL above-ground annual-production, not just forage annual-production):
3800 pounds per acre. -
Potential invasive (including noxious) species (native and non-native). List species which BOTH characterize degraded states and have the potential to become a dominant or co-dominant species on the ecological site if their future establishment and growth is not actively controlled by management interventions. Species that become dominant for only one to several years (e.g., short-term response to drought or wildfire) are not invasive plants. Note that unlike other indicators, we are describing what is NOT expected in the reference state for the ecological site:
Invasion of alien forbs and alien shrubs are the biggest threat. Refer to Plant Community 2 Plant Species Composition table in the ESD for a list of those species. -
Perennial plant reproductive capability:
Capacity to reproduce should not be reduced or impaired in the reference state.
Print Options
Sections
Font
Other
The Ecosystem Dynamics Interpretive Tool is an information system framework developed by the USDA-ARS Jornada Experimental Range, USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service, and New Mexico State University.
Click on box and path labels to scroll to the respective text.