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Ecological site VX161A01X003

Isomesic Savanna

Last updated: 4/17/2025
Accessed: 04/17/2025

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General information

Provisional. A provisional ecological site description has undergone quality control and quality assurance review. It contains a working state and transition model and enough information to identify the ecological site.

MLRA notes

Major Land Resource Area (MLRA): 161A–Lava Flows and Rock Outcrops

This MLRA occurs in the State of Hawaii on the Big Island of Hawaii and to a small extent on Maui. Elevation ranges from sea level to 13,796 feet (0 to 4,206 meters), which includes the tops of Mauna Kea, Mauna Loa, Haleakala, Kilauea, and Hualalai volcanoes. Slopes follow the undulating to very steep topography of the lava flows. The terrain includes barren lava flows, rocky cliffs, rock outcrops, and steep cinder cones. Lava flows are basaltic aa or pahoehoe lava. Average annual precipitation ranges from 10 to 100 inches (255 to 2,540 millimeters). Most of the rainfall occurs from October through March in most areas and from May through September in the Kona area of the Big Island. In Kona and isolated areas elsewhere, afternoon fog accumulation at higher elevations adds significant moisture by fog drip and ameliorates evapotranspiration. This effect is cut off sharply at the atmospheric inversion layer at about 6,000 feet (about 2,000 meters) elevation. Average annual air temperatures range from 38 to 76 degrees F (3 to 25 degrees C), with little seasonal variation. Freezing temperatures occur at the highest elevations. Dominant soils are Andisols and Histosols with isohyperthermic to isofrigid soil temperature regimes and ustic to udic soil moisture regimes. Large parts of the MLRA consist of miscellaneous (nonsoil) areas, including lava flows, rock outcrop, and cinder land. Native vegetation varies considerably as temperature, moisture, and soil development vary with elevation and flow age. In the driest areas near sea level, sparse, low-stature shrubs, grasses, and forbs predominate. Vegetation stature and density gradually increase with elevation to typical dry forest species such as lama, wiliwili, and alahee, koa-mamane-sandalwood or mamane-sandalwood forest, open ohia-lovegrass savanna, and finally sparse subalpine vegetation with silversword, shrubs, and grasses. Vegetation is extremely sparse at the highest elevations.

Classification relationships

This ecological site occurs within Major Land Resource Area (MLRA) 161A - Lava Flows and Rock Outcrops.

Ecological site concept

This ecological site is an open savanna that occurs at the highest vegetated elevations of Mauna Loa and Hualalai on Hawaii. Most of the area is owned by the State of Hawaii and the US Army Pohakuloa Training Area. Other parts are on private ranches and within Volcanoes National Park. The easiest access is along Saddle Road and at the highest part of the mauka road in Volcanoes National Park.

The central concept of the Isomesic Savanna is of well to somewhat excessively drained, mostly very shallow and shallow soils formed on young lava flows in deposits of volcanic ash or in high decomposed organic matter. It occurs between elevations of about 3500 to 9000 feet (1075 to 2770 meters). Annual air temperatures and rainfall are associated with cool (isomesic), seasonally dry (ustic) soil conditions. The vegetation is a patchwork of bare soil and lava with scattered trees or stands of trees interspersed with shrubs and grasses.

Associated sites

VX159A01X500	Well Drained Udic and Perudic Forest Both ecological sites occur only on the island of Hawaii. The Deep and Very Deep Volcanic Ash Forest occurs mostly at lower, warmer, moister elevations than this ecological site. Where elevations, temperatures, and moisture amounts overlap between the two ecological sites, the Deep and Very Deep Volcanic Ash Forest occurs on older substrates that have had more time to develop soils and vegetation communities than this ecological site. It supports tall stature, multi-canopy rainforest rather than the savannas and shrublands found in this ecological site.
VX159B01X500	Udic Forest Both ecological sites occur only on the island of Hawaii. The Udic Forest occurs at lower, warmer, moister elevations and on older substrates that have had more time to develop soils and vegetation communities than this ecological site. It supports mostly tall stature, multi-canopy rainforest rather than the savannas and shrublands found in this ecological site.
VX161B01X500	Ustic Isothermic Forest Both ecological sites occur only on the island of Hawaii. The Ustic Isothermic Forest occurs at lower, warmer elevations than this ecological site, but the two sites receive similar amounts of rainfall. It occurs on substrates of similar to greater age that, combined with the warmer temperatures, has induced greater weathering and generally higher organic matter content and greater water holding capacity in the soils. The Ustic Isothermic Forest supports a highly diverse forest of medium stature rather than the savanna with lower diversity and production of this ecological site.
VX161B01X503	Ustic Isomesic Forest Both ecological sites occur only on the island of Hawaii. The Ustic Isomesic Forest occurs in part at lower, warmer, moister elevations than this ecological site. Where elevations, temperatures, and moisture amounts overlap between the two ecological sites, the Ustic Isomesic Forest occurs on older substrates that have had more time to develop soils and vegetation communities than this ecological site. It supports tall stature, closed to partly open canopy forest rather than the savannas and shrublands found in this ecological site.

Table 1. Dominant plant species

Tree	(1) Metrosideros polymorpha
Shrub	(1) Styphelia tameiameiae
Herbaceous	Not specified

Legacy ID

R161AY003HI

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Physiographic features

This ecological site occurs on volcanic ash fields deposited over lava flows on mountain slopes of shield volcanoes. Lava flows are aa (loose, cobbly) or pahoehoe (smooth, relatively unbroken).

Table 2. Representative physiographic features

Landforms	(1) Shield volcano > Ash field (2) Shield volcano > Lava flow
Runoff class	Low to high
Flooding frequency	None
Ponding frequency	None
Elevation	1,067 – 2,743 m
Slope	2 – 20%
Water table depth	152 cm
Aspect	W, NW, N, NE, E, SE, S, SW

Table 3. Representative physiographic features (actual ranges)

Runoff class	Very low to very high
Flooding frequency	Not specified
Ponding frequency	Not specified
Elevation	Not specified
Slope	2 – 50%
Water table depth	Not specified

Climatic features

Average annual precipitation ranges from 20 to 60 inches (500 to 1500 millimeters). Most of the precipitation falls from through October through April. Average annual temperature ranges from 51 to 57 degrees F (10 to 14 degrees C). The frost-free period is 357 days; the freeze-free period is 362 days.

Table 4. Representative climatic features

Frost-free period (characteristic range)	349-365 days
Freeze-free period (characteristic range)	359-365 days
Precipitation total (characteristic range)	508-1,524 mm
Frost-free period (average)	357 days
Freeze-free period (average)	362 days
Precipitation total (average)	1,270 mm

Soil features

Most soils correlated with this ecological site are classified as either Andisols or Histosols; a few are Entisols. Most of the Andisols have vitric mineralogy (high content of volcanic glass), giving them low water holding capacity. Soil temperature regimes are isomesic; soil moisture regimes are ustic. Landform surfaces are young, with most ranging from 200 to 3,000 years old. A few are 3,000 to less than 5,000 years old.

Figure 1. Soils Profile Image.—Iwalani series. Mike Kolman, NRCS Soil Survey

Table 5. Representative soil features

Parent material	(1) Volcanic ash – basalt (2) Organic material
Surface texture	(1) Medial silt loam (2) Ashy loamy sand (3) Highly organic
Drainage class	Well drained to somewhat excessively drained
Permeability class	Very slow
Depth to restrictive layer	13 – 114 cm
Soil depth	13 – 114 cm
Surface fragment cover <=3"	5 – 70%
Surface fragment cover >3"	5 – 50%
Available water capacity (0-101.6cm)	2.54 – 22.86 cm
Calcium carbonate equivalent (0-101.6cm)	0%
Electrical conductivity (0-101.6cm)	0 – 2 mmhos/cm
Soil reaction (1:1 water) (0-50.8cm)	4.4 – 7.8
Subsurface fragment volume <=3" (0-101.6cm)	5 – 100%
Subsurface fragment volume >3" (0-101.6cm)	0 – 95%

Table 6. Representative soil features (actual values)

Drainage class	Poorly drained to somewhat excessively drained
Permeability class	Very slow to moderately rapid
Depth to restrictive layer	13 – 183 cm
Soil depth	13 – 183 cm
Surface fragment cover <=3"	0 – 80%
Surface fragment cover >3"	0 – 50%
Available water capacity (0-101.6cm)	0 – 35.56 cm
Calcium carbonate equivalent (0-101.6cm)	Not specified
Electrical conductivity (0-101.6cm)	Not specified
Soil reaction (1:1 water) (0-50.8cm)	Not specified
Subsurface fragment volume <=3" (0-101.6cm)	Not specified
Subsurface fragment volume >3" (0-101.6cm)	Not specified

Ecological dynamics

The information in this ecological site description (ESD), including the state-and-transition model (STM), was developed using archaeological and historical data, professional experience, and scientific studies. The information is representative of a complex set of plant communities. Not all scenarios or plants are included. Key indicator plants, animals, and ecological processes are described to inform land management decisions.

This ecological site develops by primary succession on lava flows. The rate of soil and vegetation development at any given location is determined by the temperature, rainfall, type of lava flow, depth of ash and cinder accumulation (if any), and age of the landform surface. This process occurs on a scale of centuries and produces almost all the variation seen across the ecological site.

The most important natural disturbance in this ecological site is flowing lava during volcanic eruptions. The entire ecological site occurs on active volcanoes that have had historic lava flows. Because the vegetation is discontinuous with much bare soil and areas of rock outcrop, fires started by lava are limited in extent.

The most severe impacts in this ecological site have been caused by feral goats, sheep, and pigs grazing and browsing the native grasses, shrubs and trees, none of which evolved with land mammals of any kind except for a native bat. Domestic cattle and sheep have been grazed on some low- to mid-elevation parts of the ecological site. This ecological site has been invaded by introduced plant species, particularly grasses and vines, that compete with and displace native plants to some extent. Human-caused wildfires have affected some limited areas.

State and transition model

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Ecosystem states

1. Reference State

2. Grazed and Browsed State

T1A	-	State 1 Reference transitions to State 2 Grazed and Browsed by reduction or loss of native species due to grazing and browsing by introduced or domestic ungulates and by invasion by introduced plant species.
R2A	-	State 2 Grazed and Browsed may be restored to State 1 Reference by excluding all ungulates. Spot weed removal must be done initially and continued in the long term. Missing native plant species can then be reintroduced.

State 1 submodel, plant communities

1.1. Ohia lehua/pukiawe

State 2 submodel, plant communities

2.1. Ohia lehua/pukiawe/Cape ivy/crimson fountaingrass sweet vernalgrass

State 1
Reference State

This state consists of one community phase. Much of this ecological site is of marginal value as grazing land. However, disturbance by introduced ungulates results in loss of native species or reductions in their abundance that cause this state to transition to State 2 Grazed and Browsed.

Community 1.1
Ohia lehua/pukiawe

Figure 2. State 1.1 Reference. Map unit 407, Iwalani medial loam, 2-10% slopes. 11/12/04. D. Clausnitzer.

Figure 3. State 1.1. Reference. Map unit 166, Puuiki very cobbly highly decomposed plant material, 10-20% slopes. D. Clausnitzer, 5/18/07.

Figure 4. State 1.1. Reference. Closeup of vegetation on young pahoehoe flow. D. Clausnitzer.

This ecological site is savanna with a sparse to open canopy of trees 40 to 60 feet (12 to 18 meters) tall and a sparse secondary canopy of trees 8 meters) tall. There is a diverse understory of shrubs. Grass/glasslike canopy cover ranges from 5 to 70 percent. Ferns are common. The overstory consists of primarily of ohia lehua (Metrosideros polymorpha) and, in some places, koa (Acacia koa). The secondary stratum consists of pilo or and alpine mirror plant (Coprosma montana). Other small tree species, including naio (Myoporum sandwicense), mamane (Sophora chrysophylla), and mountain sandalwood (Santalum paniculatum) which occur locally but are not ubiquitous across the ecological site. Koa, kolea lau nui (Myrsine lessertiana), olapa (Cheirodendron trigynum), Hawaiian holly (Ilex anomala), and kolea lau lii (Myrsine sandwicensis) occur near or below the climatic inversion layer where this ecological site borders on rainforest. The most abundant shrubs are pukiawe (Styphelia tameiameiae), aalii or Florida hopbush (Dodonaea viscosa), aiakanene (Coprosma ernodeoides), and Hawaii hawthorn (Osteomeles anthyllidifolia). Kau silversword was common in the past but is now limited to fenced enclosures due to the presence of introduced ungulates. Amaumau fern (Sadleria cyatheoides), western brackenfern (Pteridium aquilinum), and alpine woodfern (Dryopteris wallichiana) are the most ferns. The most abundant grasses/grasslikes are alpine hairgrass (Deschampsia nubigena), pili uka (Trisetum glomeratum), Gaudichaud’s sawsedge (Morelotia gahniiformis), and Oahu sedge (Carex wahuensis).

Dominant plant species

'ohi'a lehua (Metrosideros polymorpha), tree
pukiawe (Styphelia tameiameiae), shrub

State 2
Grazed and Browsed State

This state consists of one community phase. It resembles the Reference state in structure, but some native plant species have been lost or reduced in abundance. Introduced grasses have replaced native grasses to a great extent, native ferns are much reduced in abundance, and the forb category is greater in diversity, stature, and abundance. If fountaingrass is abundant, the risk of wildfire is greatly increased. Silk oak may become abundant in some areas, particularly at lower elevations of the ecological site. Introduced vines can be very invasive, covering and killing other vegetation. Invasive vines can be kept in check by sheep, but sheep also graze and browse native vegetation.

Community 2.1
Ohia lehua/pukiawe/Cape ivy/crimson fountaingrass sweet vernalgrass

Figure 5. State 2.1. Grazed and Browsed State. D. Clausnitzer.

Figure 6. State 2.1, Grazed and Browsed State. Fountaingrass-invaded site, map unit 466, Nenenui extremely gravelly ashy loamy sand, 2-10% slopes. D. Clausnitzer, 8/17/05.

The original savanna structure is present in many places, with native trees and native shrubs. The grass stratum has become dominated by introduced species, with some native grasses still present. Seedlings and saplings of native trees and shrubs are uncommon. Introduced forbs are widespread, while native forbs and vines have become less abundant. The ohia lehua overstory is largely intact. Mountain pilo (Coprosma montana) has been greatly reduced in abundance by heavy browsing. Mountain sandalwood also has been reduced in abundance. The more common native shrub species from the Reference State are present, but ulei has been browsed heavily in many areas. Kau silversword (Argyroxiphium kauense), lava dubautia (Dubautia ciliolata), and the rare vine akala (Rubus macrei) have been largely eliminated outside of protected plots. The native forb species Hawaii plantain (Plantago hawaiensis), puaakuhina (Astelia menziesiana) and ukiuki (Dianella sandwicensis) have been lost. Hairy cat’s ear (Hypochaeris radicata) is the most common introduced forb. Most of the native fern species from the Reference State are present. The grass/grasslike group consists of a mixture of native grasses from the Reference State and introduced grasses, with sweet vernalgrass (Anthoxanthum odoratum), common velvetgrass (Holcus lanatus), and meadow ricegrass or weeping grass (Microlaena stipoides) being most common.

Dominant plant species

'ohi'a lehua (Metrosideros polymorpha), tree
pukiawe (Styphelia tameiameiae), shrub
crimson fountaingrass (Pennisetum setaceum), grass
sweet vernalgrass (Anthoxanthum odoratum), grass
Cape-ivy (Delairea odorata), other herbaceous
sweet vernalgrass (Anthoxanthum odoratum), other herbaceous

Transition T1A
State 1 to 2

State 1 Reference transitions to State 2 Grazed and Browsed by reduction or loss of native species due to grazing and browsing by introduced or domestic ungulates and by invasion by introduced plant species.

Restoration pathway R2A
State 2 to 1

State 2 Grazed and Browsed may be restored to State 1 Reference by excluding all ungulates. Spot weed removal must be done initially and continued in the long term. Missing native plant species can then be reintroduced.

Additional community tables

Supporting information

Other references

Annotated References

Abrahamson I. 2013. Fire regimes in Hawaiian plant communities. In: Fire Effects Information System, US Dept. of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory. Available" www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/fire_regimes/Hawaii/all.html Review of fire regimes and history for multiple generalized plant communities in the Hawaiian Islands.

Armstrong RW. 1973. Atlas of Hawaii. University of Hawai`i Press, Honolulu. General reference for climate, land use, land forms, etc.

Athens JS. Ch. 12 Hawaiian Native Lowland Vegetation, IN Prehistory in Historical Ecology in the Pacific Islands – Prehistoric Environmental and Landscape Change. Kirch, PV and TL Hunt, eds. 1997. Yale U. Press, New Haven. General discussion of effects of prehistoric Polynesians on native lowland vegetation.

Burney DA, HF James, LP Burney, SL Olson, W Kikuchi, WL Wagner, M Burney, D McCloskey, D Kikuchi, FV Grady, R Gage II, and R Nishek. 2001. Fossil evidence diverse biota from Kauai and its transformation since human arrival. Ecological Monographs 71:615-641. Investigation of fossil evidence to trace changes in Hawaiian biota over time; generally applicable to all Hawaiian islands.

Clark JT. 1983. Report 3: The Waimea-Kawaihae Region: Historical Background. In Archaeological investigations of the Mudlane-Waimea-Kawaihae Road Corridor, Is of Hawaii: an Interdisciplinary Study of an Environmental Transect. Clark JT and Kirch PV, eds. Dept. of Anthropology, Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum, Report 83-1, Honolulu, HI. Study done in Kohala describing historical impacts on a transect crossing multiple environmental zones and vegetation types.

Craighill ES and EG Handy. 1991. Native Planters in Old Hawaii – Their Life, Lore, and Environment. Bernice P. Bishop Museum Bulletin 233, Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu, HI Discussion of early agriculture in Hawaii.

Cuddihy LW and CP Stone. 1990. Alteration of Native Hawaiian Vegetation: Effects of Humans, Their Activities and Introductions. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Cooperative National Park Resources Study Unit. General account of human effects on native Hawaiian vegetation.

Deenik J and AT McClellan. 2007. Soils of Hawaii. Soil and Crop Management, Sept. 2007, SCM-20. Cooperativve Extension Service, College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources. University of Hawaii at Manoa. Available online at: https://www.ctahr.hawaii.edu/oc/freepubs/pdf/SCM-20.pdf Discussion of soil orders and their practical implications in Hawaii.

Dixon JB and Schulze DG, eds. 2002. Soil Mineralogy with Environmental Applications. Volume 7. Soil Science Society of America. Available online at: https://acsess.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/book/10.2136/sssabookser7 Exhaustive treatment of basics of soil mineralogy and implications for environmental management.

Giambelluca TW and TA Schroeder. 1998. Climate. In Atlas of Hawaii, 3rd edition. SP Juvik, JO Juvik, and RR Paradise, eds. pp. 49-59. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. Standard geographical reference work for Hawaii.

Hazlett RW and DW Hyndman. 1996. Roadside Geology of Hawaii. Mountain Press Publishing Company, Missoula MT. General account of geologic history of Hawaii.

Hartt CE and MC Neal. 1940. The plant ecology of Mauna Kea, Hawaii. Ecology 21:2 pp. 237-266. Survey of Mauna Kea vegetation.

Henke LA. 1929. A Survey of Livestock in Hawaii. Research Publication No. 5. University of Hawaii, Honolulu. Early assessment and history of effects of European livestock on Hawaiian ecosystems.

Imada, C. 2012. Hawaiian Native and Naturalized Vascular Plants Checklist (December 2012 update). Bishop Museum Technical Report 60. Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu. Constantly-updated list of vascular plants of Hawaii, including latest nomenclature and species occurrences on each island.

Jacobi JD. 1989. Vegetation Maps of the Upland Plant Communities on the Islands of Hawaii, Maui, Molokai, and Lanai. Technical Report 68. Cooperative National Park Resources Studies Unit, University of Hawaii at Manoa and National Park Service. Shapefiles of existing forests with dominant species, general environment type, canopy height, and canopy closure.

Juvik JO and D Nullet. 1993. Relationships between rainfall, cloud-water interception, and canopy throughfall in a Hawaiian montane forest. IN: Tropical Montane Clou Forests. Proc. Int. Sym., San Juan, PR. Hamilton LS, JO Juvik, and FN Scatena, eds. East-West Center. Field study done within this ecological site; measured fog drip and compared it with rainfall.

Kirch PV. 1982. The impact of the prehistoric Polynesians in the Hawaiian ecosystem. Pacific Science 36(1):1-14. General discussion of effects of prehistoric Polynesians on native vegetation.

Kirch PV. 1985. Feathered Gods and Fishhooks: An Introduction to Hawaiian Archaeology and Prehistory. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. General discussion of effects of prehistoric Polynesians on native vegetation.

Kirch PV. 2000. On the Road of the Winds: An Archaeological History of the Pacific Islands Before European Contact. Berkeley: University of California Press. General discussion of effects of prehistoric Polynesians on native vegetation.

Little EL Jr. and RG Skolmen. 1989. Common Forest Trees of Hawaii (Native and Introduced). US Department of Agriculture-US Forest Service Agriculture Handbook No. 679. (out of print). Available at www.fs.fed.us/psw/publications/documents/misc/ah679.pdf Information on common native and introduced tree species in Hawaii. Especially useful for introduced species.

Mueller-Dombois D and FR Fosberg. 1998. Vegetation of the Tropical Pacific Islands. Springer-Verlag New York, Inc. General account of tropical Pacific Island vegetation, with section on Hawaii. Discussion of likely effect of stoniness on soil moistue storage in dry habitats.

Palmer DD. 2003. Hawaii’s Ferns and Fern Allies. University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu. Standard reference for Hawaiian ferns and fern allies.

Pratt HD. 1998. A Pocket Guide to Hawaii’s Trees and Shrubs. Mutual Publishing, Honolulu. Useful guide to common tree and plant species, with color photos.

Reppun F, Silva JHS, Wong K, and Deenik JL. 2017. A Soil Phosphorus Primer for Hawaiian Soils. Soil and Crop Management, August 2017, SCM-33. College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources, University of Hawaii at Manoa. Available online at: https://www.ctahr.hawaii.edu/oc/freepubs/pdf/SCM-33.pdf Practical discussion of soil phosphorus for Hawaii.

Ripperton JC and EY Hosaka. 1942. Vegetation zones of Hawaii. Hawaii Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 89:1-60. Broad-scale map of vegetation zones in Hawaii.

Rock JF. The Indigenous Trees of the Hawaiian Islands. 1st edition 1913, reprinted 1974, Charles E. Tuttle Company, Rutland, VT and Tokyo, Japan. Very useful account observations of native vegetation in Hawaii from early 20th century. Can be paired with GIS layer of place names to locate species observations.

Shoji SD, M Nanzyo, and R Dahlgren. 1993. Volcanic Ash Soils: Genesis, Properties and Utilization. Elsevier, New York. Detailed discussion of volcanic ash soils. Not specific to Hawaii, but very informative.

Silva JA and R Uchida, eds. 2000. Plant Nutrient Management in Hawaii’s Soils, Approaches for Tropical and Subtropical Agriculture. College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources, University of Hawaii at Manoa. Available online at: https://www.ctahr.hawaii.edu/oc/freepubs/pdf/pnm0.pdf Practical discussion of plant nutrient management for Hawaii.

Sohmer SH and R Gustafson. 2000. Plants and Flowers of Hawaii. University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu. A good general discussion, with color photographs, primarily of native Hawaiian plants and vegetation types.

Soil Survey Staff. 2014. Soil Taxonomy, Twelfth Edition. USDA – NRCS. Standard book of soil taxonomy; useful for terminology and interpretation of soils, also.

Steadman DW. 1995. Prehistoric extinctions of Pacific island birds: biodiversity meets zooarchaeology. Science 267:1123-1131. Discussion of loss of many bird species, including flightless birds.

USDA-NRCS-PIA Threatened & Endangered Species GIS files. Not publicly available. Specific locations of observations of many native Hawaiian plant species.

USDA-NRCS. 2011. Soil Survey Laboratory Information Manual. Soil Survey Investigations Report No. 45, Version 2.0. National Soil Survey Center, Lincoln, Nebraska.

USDA-NRCS. 2006. Major Land Resource Regions. USDA Agriculture Handbook 296. http://soils.usda.gov/MLRAExplorer Description of MLRAs of Hawaii.

USDA-NRCS. Island of Hawaii Soil Surveys 801 and 701. Available online at https://websoilsurvey.sc.egov.usda.gov/App/HomePage.htm The latest NRCS soil survey for the island of Hawaii.

USDA-SCS. 1972. Soil Survey of Islands of Kauai, Oahu, Maui, Molokai, and Lanai, State of Hawaii. Foote DE, Hill EL, Nakamura S, and F Stephens, in cooperation with The University of Hawaii Agricultural Experiment Station. The latest NRCS soil survey for these islands. Some of the taxonomic names are outdated.

USDI-USGS. 2006. A GAP Analysis of Hawaii. Final Report and Data. GIS map of vegetation types and land use in Hawaii based on remote sensing. Very general, occasionally inaccurate, but useful.

Vitousek P. 2004. Nutrient Cycling and Limitation: Hawai`i as a Model Ecosystem. Princeton University Press, Princeton and Oxford. Discussion of development of soils, soil nutrients, and plant species in Hawaiian Archipelago.

Wagner WL, DR Herbst, and SH Sohmer. 1999. Manual of the Flowering Plants of Hawaii, Revised Edition. Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu. Standard reference of flowering plants of Hawaii.

Western Regional Climate Center, cited 2020. Climate of Hawaii. Available: https://wrcc.dri.edu/Climate/narrative_hi.php Detailed summary of climate of Hawaiian Islands.

Whistler, WA. 1995. Wayside Plants of the Islands: A Guide to the Lowland Flora of the Pacific Islands. Isle Botanica, Honolulu. Reference of common introduced plant species in lowland areas of the Pacific Islands including Hawaii; with color photographs.

DEFINITIONS:

These definitions have been greatly simplified for brevity and do not cover every aspect of each topic.

Aa lava: A type of basaltic lava having a rough, jagged, clinkery surface and a vesicular interior.

Ash field: a land area covered by a thick or distinctive deposit of volcanic ash that can be traced to a specific source and has well defined boundaries. The term “ash flow” is erroneously used in the Physiographic section of this ESD due to a flaw in the national database.

Ashy: A “soil texture modifier” for volcanic ash soils having a water content at the crop wilting point of less than 30 percent; a soil that holds relatively less water than “medial” and “hydrous” soils.

Available water capacity: The amount of soil water available to plants to the depth of the first root-restricting layer.

CaCO3 equivalent: The amount of free lime in a soil. Free lime exists as solid material and typically occurs in regions with a dry climate.

Canopy cover: The percentage of ground covered by the vertical projection downward of the outermost perimeter of the spread of plant foliage. Small openings within the canopy are included.

Community pathway: A description of the causes of shifts between community phases. A community pathway is reversible and is attributable to succession, natural disturbances, short-term climatic variation, and facilitating practices, such as grazing management.

Community phase: A unique assemblage of plants and associated dynamic soil properties within a state.

Dominant species: Plant species or species groups that exert considerable influence upon a community due to size, abundance, or cover.

Drainage class: The frequency, duration, and depth of a water table in a soil. There are seven drainage classes, ranging from “excessively drained” (soils with very rare or very deep water tables) to “well drained” (soils that provide ample water for plant growth but are not so wet as to inhibit root growth) to “very poorly drained” (soils with a water table at or near the surface during much of the growing season that inhibits growth of most plants).

Electrical conductivity (EC): A measure of the salinity of a soil. The standard unit is deciSiemens per meter (dS/m), which is numerically equivalent to millimhos per centimeter (mmhos/cm). An EC greater than about 4 dS/m indicates a salinity level that is unfavorable to growth of most plants.

Isohyperthermic soil temperature regime: A regime in which mean annual soil temperature is 72 degrees F (22 degrees C) or higher and mean summer and mean winter soil temperatures differ by less than 11 degrees F (6 degrees C) at a specified depth.

Isomesic soil temperature regime: A regime in which mean annual soil temperature is 47 degrees F (8 degrees C) or higher but lower than 59 degrees F (15 degrees C) and mean summer and mean winter soil temperatures differ by less than 11 degrees F (6 degrees C) at a specified depth.

Major Land Resource Area (MLRA): A geographic area defined by NRCS that is characterized by a particular pattern of soils, climate, water resources, and land uses. The island of Hawaii contains nine MLRAs, some of which also occur on other islands in the state.

Makai: a Hawaiian word meaning “toward the sea.”

Mauka: a Hawaiian word meaning “toward the mountain” or “inland.”

Medial: A “soil texture modifier” for volcanic ash soils having a water content at the crop wilting point of 30 to 100 percent; a soil that holds an amount of water intermediate to “hydrous” or “ashy” soils.

Naturalized plant community: A community dominated by adapted, introduced species. It is a relatively stable community resulting from secondary succession after disturbance. Most grasslands in Hawaii are in this category.

Pahoehoe lava: A type of basaltic lava with a smooth, billowy, or rope-like surface and vesicular interior.

Parent material: Unconsolidated and chemically weathered material from which a soil is developed.

pH: The numerical expression of the relative acidity or alkalinity of a soil sample. A pH of 7 is neutral; a pH below 7 is acidic and a pH above 7 is basic.

Reference community phase: The phase exhibiting the characteristics of the reference state and containing the full complement of plant species that historically occupied the site. It is the community phase used to classify an ecological site.

Reference state: A state that describes the ecological potential and natural or historical range of variability of an ecological site.

Restoration pathway: A term describing the environmental conditions and practices that are required to recover a state that has undergone a transition.

Sodium adsorption ratio (SAR): A measure of the amount of dissolved sodium relative to calcium and magnesium in the soil water. SAR values higher than 13 create soil conditions unfavorable to most plants.

Soil moisture regime: A term referring to the presence or absence either of ground water or of water held at a tension of less than 1500 kPa (the crop wilting point) in the soil or in specific horizons during periods of the year.

Soil temperature regime: A defined class based on mean annual soil temperature and on differences between summer and winter temperatures at a specified depth.

Soil reaction: Numerical expression in pH units of the relative acidity or alkalinity or a soil.

State: One or more community phases and their soil properties that interact with the abiotic and biotic environment to produce persistent functional and structural attributes associated with a characteristic range of variability.

State-and-transition model: A method used to display information about relationships between vegetation, soil, animals, hydrology, disturbances, and management actions on an ecological site.

Transition: A term describing the biotic or abiotic variables or events that contribute to loss of state resilience and result in shifts between states.

Udic soil moisture regime: A regime in which the soil is not dry in any part for as long as 90 cumulative days in normal years, and so provides ample moisture for plants. In Hawaii it is associated with forests in which hapuu (tree ferns) are usually moderately to highly abundant.

Ustic soil moisture regime: A regime in which moisture is limited but present at a time when conditions are suitable for plant growth. In Hawaii it usually is associated with dry forests and subalpine shrublands.

Contributors

David Clausnitzer
John Proctor
Mike Kolman
Carolyn Wong
Mathew Cocking
Amy Koch
Kendra Moseley
Jennifer Higashino
Michael Constantinides

Approval

Kendra Moseley, 4/17/2025

Acknowledgments

Assistance, advice, review, and/or insights:

Randy Bartlett, Puu Kukui Watershed Preserve
Alison Cohan, The Nature Conservancy
Gordon Cran, Kapapala Ranch
Diana Crow, Ulupalakua Ranch
Lance DeSilva, Hawaii DLNR
Kerri Fay, Waikamoi Preserve, The Nature Conservancy
Alex Franco, Kaupo Ranch
Ranae Ganske-Cerizo, NRCS
Carl Hashimoto, NRCS
Bob Hobdy, consultant, Maui
Wallace Jennings, NRCS
Mel Johansen, The Nature Conservancy
Jordan Jokiel, Haleakala Ranch
David Leonard, volunteer
Penny Levin
Reese Libby, GIS - NRCS
Hannah Lutgen, Maui SWCD
Joseph May, NRCS
Scott Meidel, Haleakala Ranch
Anna Palomino, Hoolawa Farms Inc.
Jon Price, USGS
Tamara Sherrill, USFWS, Maui Nui Botanical Garden
Amber Starr, Hana Ranch
Kahana Stone, NRCS
Mark Vaught, Water Resources, Alexander & Baldwin
Jacqueline Vega, NRCS
Rich von Wellsheim, Whispering Bamboos, Kipahulu

Rangeland health reference sheet

Interpreting Indicators of Rangeland Health is a qualitative assessment protocol used to determine ecosystem condition based on benchmark characteristics described in the Reference Sheet. A suite of 17 (or more) indicators are typically considered in an assessment. The ecological site(s) representative of an assessment location must be known prior to applying the protocol and must be verified based on soils and climate. Current plant community cannot be used to identify the ecological site.

Author(s)/participant(s)
Contact for lead author
Date	04/17/2025
Approved by	Kendra Moseley
Approval date
Composition (Indicators 10 and 12) based on	Annual Production