Natural Resources
Conservation Service
Ecological site EX043B15I954
Montane Very Deep Meadow 20-24" PZ Cryic Northern Rocky Mountain Front
Last updated: 5/06/2024
Accessed: 11/13/2024
General information
Provisional. A provisional ecological site description has undergone quality control and quality assurance review. It contains a working state and transition model and enough information to identify the ecological site.
MLRA notes
Major Land Resource Area (MLRA): 043B–Central Rocky Mountains
This ecological site currently resides in the Major Land Resource Area (MLRA) 43B Central Rocky Mountains. The area of MLRA 43B is expansive and is further divided into Land Resource Units (LRU). A detailed description of MLRA 43B can be found at: https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detail/soils/ref/?cid=nrcs142p2_053624
This ecological site resides within the eastern portion of Glacier National Park which resides in MLRA 43B and LRU A – Northern Rocky Mountain Front.
LRU notes
This ecological site resides within the eastern portion of Glacier National Park which resides in MLRA 43B and LRU A – Northern Rocky Mountain Front.
The landscape is mountains and the landforms include scarp slopes, dip slopes, mountain slopes, drainageways, bog, cirque, U-shaped valley and associated moraine and outwash features. Elevations range 1,000-3,175 meters (3,300-10,500 feet) (mean elevation is 1,900 m. or 6,200 ft.). The climate is cold and wet with mean annual precipitation of 1,050 mm (41 in.) and mean annual air temperature of 3 degrees C. (37 degrees F.) with a soil temperature regime of cryic and soil moisture regime of udic or ustic. The geology of the area is dominated by Appenkunny and Grinnell argillite, Kootenai formation, Tertiary sedimentary rocks, Missoula group quartzite, glacial drift alluvium, Siyeh limestone and undifferentiated rock. The soils are dominantly moderately deep to very deep that formed from a variety of sedimentary rock parent materials on moderately steep to very steep mountain slopes. Soils fall into three soil orders: Inceptisols, Mollisols, and Alfisols. Most soils are loamy-skeletal and many, especially in the eastern part, contain significant amounts of calcium carbonate influencing both physical and chemical soil characteristics (horizons of calcium carbonate accumulation and corresponding alkaline pH values). Rock outcrop, rubble land, and surface rock fragments are common. There are few lakes but has numerous major drainages including Dearborn, Sun, Teton, Birch, Badger, Two Medicine, St. Maries, South and Middle Fork Flathead headwaters, Blackfoot headwaters. This is a snow dominated system. Wind is a major force shaping climatic patterns and vegetation structure. This area includes forested areas dominated by either Douglas fir, subalpine fir or white bark pine, and range areas dominated by rough fescue, Richardson’s needlegrass and bluebunch wheatgrass and assorted forbs.
This is related to the EPA land classification framework of: Level 3- 41 Canadian Rockies. Specifically, it includes Level 4-41a Northern Front.
This area is related predominantly to the USFS Provinces M333Cf Northern Rocky Mountain Front.
Classification relationships
NPS Plant Community Name:
Festuca campestris-Festuca idahoensis-Geranium viscosissimum Herbaceous Vegetation (CEGL005870)
Physiognomic Class Herbaceous Vegetation (V)
Physiognomic Subclass Perennial graminoid vegetation (V.A.)
Physiognomic Group Temperate or subpolar grassland (V.A.5.)
Physiognomic Subgroup Natural/Semi-natural temperate or subpolar grassland (V.A.5.N.)
Formation Medium-tall bunch temperate or subpolar grassland (V.A.5.N.d.)
Alliance Festuca idahoensis Herbaceous Alliance (A.1251)
Alliance (English name) Idaho Fescue Herbaceous Alliance
Association Festuca campestris - Festuca idahoensis - Geranium viscosissimum Herbaceous Vegetation
Association (English name) Prairie Fescue - Idaho Fescue - Sticky Geranium Herbaceous Vegetation
ECOLOGICAL SYSTEM(S): Northern Rocky Mountain Lower Montane, Foothill and Valley Grassland (CES306.040)
Festuca capestris-(Festuca idahoensis)-Achnatherum richardsonii Herbaceous Vegetation (CEGL005869)
Physiognomic Class Herbaceous Vegetation (V)
Physiognomic Subclass Perennial graminoid vegetation (V.A.)
Physiognomic Group Temperate or subpolar grassland (V.A.5.)
Physiognomic Subgroup Natural/Semi-natural temperate or subpolar grassland (V.A.5.N.)
Formation Medium-tall bunch temperate or subpolar grassland (V.A.5.N.d.)
Alliance Festuca idahoensis Herbaceous Alliance (A.1251)
Alliance (English name) Idaho Fescue Herbaceous Alliance
Association Festuca campestris - (Festuca idahoensis) - Achnatherum richardsonii Herbaceous Vegetation
Association (English name) Prairie Fescue - (Idaho Fescue) - Richardson's Needlegrass Herbaceous Vegetation
ECOLOGICAL SYSTEM(S): Northern Rocky Mountain Lower Montane, Foothill and Valley Grassland (CES306.040)
Ecological site concept
Ecological Site Concept
This 43B Montane Very Deep Meadow ecological site is found in the montane zone, with an elevation range of 1,400-2,000 meters (4,600-6,550 feet), on backslope positions with moderate slopes of 4-15 percent and southwesterly aspects on marginal ground moraines and complex landslides on lateral moraines. Infrequently, this site is found on alluvial fans, hogbacks, knobs, ledges and knolls. These are large patch sized meadows. It is dominated by rough fescue (Festuca campetris) with associated montane grasses and forbs. Idaho fescue (Festuca idahoensis) and shrubby cinquefoil are common, but occur in much lower canopy cover. Other associated grasses occurring infrequently but in moderate cover include: rough bentgrass (Agrostis scabra), Richardsons needlegrass (Achnatherum richardsonii), alpine timothy (Phleum alpinum), alpine bluegrass (Poa alpina) and blue wildrye (Elymus glaucus). Associated montane forbs include: yarrow (Achillea millefolia), bluebell bellflower (campanula rotundifolia), nineleaf biscuitroot (Lomatium triternatum), lupine species and northern bedstraw (Galium boreale). Montane shrub species that can occur although in very low cover including: white spirea (Spirea betulifolia), thimbleberry (Rubus parviflorus), serviceberry (Amalanchier alnifolia), creeping juniper (Juniperus horizontalis), kinnikinnick (Arctostaphylos uva-ursi), Woods rose (Rosa woodsii) and sulphur-flower buckwheat (Eriogonum umbellatum). The soils of this ecological site are predominantly very deep and well drained. Surface textures are typically gravelly loam and subsurface layers fall into the fine-loamy particle-size family. These soils are classified in the Mollisols soil order having a thick dark surface with significant enrichment of organic matter and high base saturation. More specifically, these soils are in the Pachic Argicryolls taxonomic subgroup, indicating that the surface layer of dark organic matter-rich mineral soil extends to a depth greater than 40 centimeters and there is an accumulation of clay in the subsoil horizons. The parent material is predominantly till from metamorphic and sedimentary rock. Diagnostic features include a thick mollic epipedon (Pachic) and an argillic horizon (zone of clay accumulation). The surface structure is weak fine granular. Due to the low amount of rock fragments, loamy soil textures, and enrichment of organic matter from the prevalence of fine roots, these soils tend to have a high water-holding capacity. There may be a very thin organic matter layer on the soil surface, usually less than 3 cm thick.
Associated sites
EX043B15J952 |
Subalpine Windswept Shallow Meadow 25-30" PZ Cryic Northern Rocky Mountain Front The 43B Subalpine Windswept Shallow Meadow ecological site occurs in the subalpine at elevations ranging 1,700-2,300 meters (5,575-7,550 feet), on moderately sloping (15-35%) backslope positions on knobs, ridges and slopes on mountain slopes, mainly on southeasterly aspects. This ecological site is found in small patches rather than large, broad expanses. The soils of 43B Subalpine Windswept Shallow Meadow are well drained and shallow to bedrock. Soil parent materials are colluvium or till over metasedimentary bedrock residuum. Surface textures are typically very gravelly having 35 to 60 percent gravel. Subsurface textures also contain greater than 35 percent rock fragments, are loamy causing these soils fall into the loamy-skeletal particle-size family. A very thin layer (0-5cm) or no organic material is typically present at the soil surface. There are no water table, ponding, flooding or redoximorphic features in these soils. Due to the shallow depth of the soil profile the water-holding capacity of these soils is very limited and the soils will dry down rapidly between precipitation events during extended dry periods. These soils classified in the soil order of Inceptisols. 43B Subalpine Windswept Shallow Meadow has a reference vegetation community of kinnikinnick(Arctostaphylos uva-ursi), (common juniper(Juniperus communis), shrubby cinquefoil(Dasiphora fruticosa), rosa species), rough fescue(Festuca campestris), pinegrass(Calamagrostis rubescens), yarrow(Achillea millefolia), rosy pussytoes(Antennaria rosea), Ross’s sedge (Carex rossii), northern bedstraw(Galium boreale), sulphur-flower buckwheat(Eriogonum umbellatum). |
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EX043B15I953 |
Montane Deciduous Clayey Outwash Terrace 20-24" PZ Cryic Northern Rocky Mountain Front The 43B Montane deciduous clayey outwash terrace ecological site is found on low to moderate slopes (most range from 5-10 percent, and a few range between 20-35 percent) with southerly (southeastern, southern, southwestern) aspects on backslope, footslope, or toeslope positions of lateral (or ground) moraines from 1,400-1,900 meters (4,600-6,200 feet) elevation.The 43B Montane Deciduous Clayey Outwash Terrace, (aspen) ecological site has soils associated with this ecological site that are very deep and moderately well or well drained. The parent material on these lateral moraine and ground moraine landforms is predominantly glacial till. Subsurface textures are typically in the fine particle-size class families. Dark soil surface horizons enriched with organic matter indicate that the most common soil order for these soils are Mollisols.The 43B Montane Deciduous Clayey Outwash Terrace, (aspen) ecological site has a reference vegetation community of Quaking aspen overstory with an understory of Saskatoon serviceberry, common snowberry, common cowparsnip-western sweetroot and mountain brome. |
Similar sites
EX043B15J952 |
Subalpine Windswept Shallow Meadow 25-30" PZ Cryic Northern Rocky Mountain Front These sites are similar in that the reference communities share the same species, though in different abundance, in that native perennial bunchgrasses dominate in the very deep meadow and kinnikinnick and rough fescue can dominate in the windswept shallow meadow due to high winds and shallow soil depth. |
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Table 1. Dominant plant species
Tree |
Not specified |
---|---|
Shrub |
(1) Dasiphora fruticosa |
Herbaceous |
(1) Festuca campestris |
Legacy ID
R043BX954MT
Physiographic features
This 43B MONTANE VERY DEEP MEADOW ecological site is found in the montane zone, with an elevation range of 1400-2000m, (4,600-6,550 feet), on backslope positions with moderate slopes of 4-15 percent and southwesterly aspects on marginal ground moraines and complex landslides on lateral moraines. Infrequently, this site is found on alluvial fans, hogbacks, knobs, ledges and knolls. These are large patch sized meadows.
Figure 1.
Figure 2.
Figure 3.
Figure 4.
Table 2. Representative physiographic features
Landforms |
(1)
Mountains
> Ground moraine
(2) Mountains > Lateral moraine |
---|---|
Elevation | 4,593 – 6,561 ft |
Slope | 4 – 15% |
Aspect | SE, S, SW |
Climatic features
SUMMARY ST. MARY CLIMATE STATION:
Mean Average Precipitation 35-60 inches
Mean Average Annual Temperature 34-43 degrees
Frost free days: 30-70
Relative Effective Annual Precipitation: 33-61 inches
This 43B MONTANE VERY DEEP MEADOW ecological site is found in the cryic soil temperature regime and the udic soil moisture regime. Cryic soils have average annual temperature less than 8 degrees C, with less than 5 degrees C difference from winter to summer. Udic soil moisture regime denotes that the rooting zone is usually moist throughout the winter and the majority of summer. This site is found on the east side of the Continental Divide and has more continental weather influences.
Table 3. Representative climatic features
Frost-free period (characteristic range) | 44 days |
---|---|
Freeze-free period (characteristic range) | 96 days |
Precipitation total (characteristic range) | 24-25 in |
Frost-free period (actual range) | 44 days |
Freeze-free period (actual range) | 96 days |
Precipitation total (actual range) | 24-25 in |
Frost-free period (average) | 44 days |
Freeze-free period (average) | 96 days |
Precipitation total (average) | 25 in |
Figure 5. Monthly precipitation range
Figure 6. Monthly minimum temperature range
Figure 7. Monthly maximum temperature range
Figure 8. Monthly average minimum and maximum temperature
Figure 9. Annual precipitation pattern
Figure 10. Annual average temperature pattern
Climate stations used
-
(1) ST. MARY 1 SSW [USW00004130], Babb, MT
-
(2) EAST GLACIER [USC00242629], East Glacier Park, MT
Influencing water features
Soil features
The soils of this ecological site are predominantly very deep and well drained. Surface textures are typically gravelly loam and subsurface layers fall into the fine-loamy particle-size family. These soils are classified in the Mollisols soil order having a thick dark surface with significant enrichment of organic matter and high base saturation. More specifically, these soils are in the Pachic Argicryolls taxonomic subgroup, indicating that the surface layer of dark organic matter-rich mineral soil extends to a depth greater than 40 centimeters and there is an accumulation of clay in the subsoil horizons. The parent material is predominantly till from metamorphic and sedimentary rock. Diagnostic features include a thick mollic epipedon (Pachic) and an argillic horizon (zone of clay accumulation). The surface structure is weak fine granular. Due to the low amount of rock fragments, loamy soil textures, and enrichment of organic matter from the prevalence of fine roots, these soils tend to have a high water-holding capacity. There may be a very thin organic matter layer on the soil surface, usually less than 3 cm thick. For more information on soil taxonomy, please follow this link:
http://http://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detail/soils/survey/class/?cid=nrcs142p2_053580
CORRELATED SOIL SERIES & TAXONOMIC CLASS NAME
Odark Fine-loamy, mixed, superactive Pachic Argicryolls
Figure 11.
Table 4. Representative soil features
Parent material |
(1)
Till
–
metasedimentary rock
(2) Till – metamorphic rock (3) Mass movement deposits – metasedimentary rock |
---|---|
Surface texture |
(1) Gravelly loam |
Family particle size |
(1) Fine-loamy |
Drainage class | Well drained |
Permeability class | Moderate |
Soil depth | 60 – 100 in |
Surface fragment cover <=3" | 10% |
Surface fragment cover >3" | 10% |
Available water capacity (5.1-6.6in) |
Not specified |
Soil reaction (1:1 water) (5.8-6.6in) |
Not specified |
Ecological dynamics
Ecological Dynamics of the Site
This ecological site is found in the montane zone, with an elevation range of 1,400-2,000m, on backslope positions with moderate slopes of 4-15 percent and southwesterly aspects on marginal ground moraines and complex landslides on lateral moraines. Infrequently, this site is found on alluvial fans, hogbacks, knobs, ledges and knolls. These are large patch sized meadows. Within the montane lifezone, it is associated with the 43B Montane Deciduous Clayey Outwash Terrace, found on moister site locations. At harsher site locations of this ecological site, it is associated with the
43B Subalpine Windswept Shallow Meadow.
State 1.0
Historic Reference state with no weedy species present.
Rough fescue (Festuca campestris)/shrubby cinquefoil (Dasiphora fruticosa)/Idaho fescue (Festuca idahoensis)/yarrow (Achillea millefolia)-northern bedstraw (Galium boreale)-Ross’s sedge (Carex rossii).
This 43B Montane Very Deep Meadow ecological site is dominated by rough fescue (Festuca campetris) with associated montane grasses and forbs. Idaho fescue (Festuca idahoensis) and shrubby cinquefoil are common, but occur in much lower canopy cover. Other associated grasses occurring infrequently but in moderate cover include: rough bentgrass (Agrostis scabra), Richardson’s needlegrass (Achnatherum richardsonii), alpine timothy (Phleum alpinum), alpine bluegrass (Poa alpina) and blue wildrye (Elymus glaucus). Associated montane forbs include: yarrow (Achillea millefolia), bluebell bellflower (campanula rotundifolia), nineleaf biscuitroot (Lomatium triternatum), lupine species and northern bedstraw (Galium boreale). Montane shrub species that can occur although in very low cover including: white spirea (Spirea betulifolia), thimbleberry (Rubus parviflorus), serviceberry (Amalanchier alnifolia), creeping juniper (Juniperus horizontalis), kinnikinnick (Arctostaphylos uva-ursi), Wood’s rose (Rosa woodsii) and sulphur-flower buckwheat (Eriogonum umbellatum). This community is predominantly herbaceous with an average total canopy cover of 96 percent and shrub/sub-shrub canopy cover 9 percent relative canopy cover. This relates primarily to the National Park Service Grasslands Report (Asebrook, 2010) classifications of Festuca campestris-Festuca idahoensis/Geranium viscosissimum and Dasiphora fruticosa/Festuca campestris associations predominantly. Hansen et. al. (1995) found that shrubby cinquefoil, yarrow and northern bedstraw were fair to poor forage for cattle, horses and sheep, whereas Idaho fescue was good forage for all. Shrubby cinquefoil had medium energy value and low protein value for the fall and winter. Idaho fescue had high fall winter energy value and medium protein value. Yarrow and northern bedstraw were low for both energy and protein values in fall and winter. Shrubby cinquefoil was considered poor cover for elk, mule deer, whitetail deer, upland birds, waterfowl, small non-game birds and small mammals. It was fair food value for elk, deer and antelope, but poor for bird species. Yarrow and northern bedstraw were poor food value for elk, deer species and antelope and bird species.
Rough fescue and elk sedge are considered very resistant to human trampling in a study by Cole (1987) assessing human trampling effects on vegetation to recommend campground placement in the backcountry. This is due to its tough core of the tuft (Cole, 1987). The majority of the loss of cover, reduction by 50 percent, occurred in the first 400 passes. Thereafter, cover loss was stabilized from 400-800 passes. The community of rough fescue-timber oatgrass is considered very resistant to both light and heavy trampling. Human trampling is different from wildlife or livestock trampling in the weight of the animal, size, structure and action of a hoof versus a foot.
Rough fescue is a native, cool season, perennial bunchgrass that produces thick mats of persistent sheath and stem bases and culms that grow to 107cm (3.5 feet) and leaf tufts that grow to 41cm (16 inches) in height (Cronquist, 1977). It has extensive fibrous roots to a depth of 122 cm (4 feet), 73 percent of which are concentrated in the top 15 cm (6 inches) of soil (Coupland, 1953). It regenerates from seed, tillers and sometimes rhizomes (Pavlick, 1984). It is well adapted to a short growing season by initiating growth following snowmelt and completes growth before the onset of summer drought. It is very productive and highly palatable to livestock and wildlife. It is used by bighorn sheep, mule deer, elk and bison. It is resistant to moderate grazing but heavy grazing can result in severely decreased root depth and biomass (Aiken, 1990). Grazing can cause a general decline in rough fescue coverage, and is one of the first species to decline with a concomitant increase of common increasers species with grazing such as Idaho fescue, needlegrass species, prairie Junegrass, and Parry’s oatgrass.
It is well-adapted to periodic burning and resistant to light fire by their dense, tufted habit. It sprouts from surviving residual plants and colonizes from off-site wind-dispersed seed. Fire may top-kill plants, but cover and production usually is attained in 2-3 years post-fire. Severe damage can occur by hot, mid-summer wildfires (Wright, 1982).
Due to a lack of fire, a shrub-encroached phase does exist that has a high cover of shrub species, including serviceberry (Amelanchier alnifolia), kinnikinnick (Arctostaphylos uva-ursi), shrubby cinquefoil (Dasiphora fruticosa), sulphur-flower buckwheat (Eriogonum umbellatum), Wood’s rose (Rosa woodsii), snowberry (Symphoricarpos albus), and thimbleberry (Rubus parviflorus). Serviceberry and shrubby cinquefoil dominate the shrub overstory. Infrequent shrub species that can occur include russet buffaloberry (Shepherdia canadensis), dwarf bilberry (Vaccinium cespitosum), red baneberry (Actaea rubra), common juniper (Juniperus communis), and creeping barberry (Mahonia repens). The understory is dominated by rough fescue (Festuca campestris) and low cover of Idaho fescue (Festuca idahoensis). This community consists predominantly of herbaceous species ranging from 60-93 percent and averaging 77 percent, and shrub species that range in total average cover from 21-70 percent (39 percent average). There is a very low cover of trees at these sites (2 percent average canopy cover) with a variety of species including lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta), black cottonwood (Populus balsamifera), and aspen (Populus tremuloides).
Invasion Theory
Invasion of weedy species into native vegetation communities requires an understanding of the processes and mechanisms by which an invasion occurs. Resistance and resilience of the native community are essential elements in predicting the success of the invasion. There are two counter point theories on invasive species. The driver theory considers the invasive species to be driving species decline while the passenger model sees the invading species as filling in empty niches left by habitat alteration (Didham, 2005). The passenger model suggests that disturbance is the cause and if stopped, invasion can be reversed. Potential mechanisms of invasion include theories such as novel weapons, enemy release, competitive superiority, and manipulation of environment. Novel weapons include biological weapons or associations with micro-organisms that allow the invader species to either access new resources or steal them from indigenous plants (Tannas, 2011). Specifically, arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi may provide a substantial competitive advantage to spotted knapweed by carbon parasitism (Carey, 2004). In these cases, the invader uses these weapons to drive the invasion process. Enemy release describes the concept that once invader species are released from their native predator species or chemical warfare within their original community, they are more aggressive in their new community (Blumenthal 2006, Callaway and Aschelhoug 2000). The invader species may have characteristics that allow it to be more competitive than resident plant species such as grazing resistance, adaption to a harsh environment or another competitive ability (Tannas, 2011). Invading species can manipulate the environment to their advantage through resource competition. Mechanisms include modifying light interception, water uptake efficiency or change in soil water holding capacity, nutrient uptake and cycling (D’Antonio and Vitousek, 1992). The final outcome of invasion is establishment of the invading species which occurs as either dominance, coexistence, or exclusion from the indigenous plant community (Seabloom, 2003). D’Antonio and Vitousek (1992) stated grass invasions are particularly important because they are actively moved by humans and exotic grasses compete effectively with native species in many ecosystems. In addition, dominant grasses may change nutrient cycling, modify regional microclimates and alter fire dynamics.
Invasive Species Descriptions
Specifically, scientific literature on invasions by Kentucky bluegrass, smooth brome, spotted knapweed, leafy spurge and Canada thistle into rough fescue grasslands in Canada and Montana will be reviewed. Kentucky bluegrass invasion into rough fescue grasslands can take multiple pathways. Heavy grazing of rough fescue which reduces litter amount combined with timing of defoliation, winter versus growing season and abiotic factors like seasonal variation in soil moisture content can make native grasslands less resistant to invasion (Douwes, 2012, Tannas, 2012). Resilience of the native grassland is dependent on vigor and density of rough fescue and restoration establishment is more successful with cuttings and plugs than seeding (Tannas, 2011). Although, seeding rough fescue as a monoculture is effective (Sherritt, 2012). A study of grazing effects on a rough fescue at Stavely grassland, a Canadian research station, found that heavy grazing pressure by cattle resulted changes in plant species composition to an increase in shallow rooted species, less productive overall, but more resistant to grazing (Dormaar, 1990). In a study of seasonal biomass changes, Willms (1996) found that with grazing intensity the vegetation community composition shifted from one dominated by rough fescue to one dominated by parry oatgrass-Kentucky bluegrass in moderately grazed pastures to Kentucky bluegrass-sedge species in heavily grazed pastures. The rough fescue dominated community had the greatest forage value compared to communities resulting from moderate, heavy and severe grazing (Willms, 1996). More than 20 years of drastically reduced stocking rates were required to enable recovery (Willms, 1985). Soils associated with heavy grazing were transformed to a soil more characteristic of a drier microclimate (Johnston, 1962 and 1971), by reducing the thickness of Ah horizon, reducing percent organic matter and soil moisture and increasing soil temperature with grazing intensity. Heavy grazing also reduced the fertility and soil water holding capacity (Dormaar, 1998). Soil organic matter, and nutrient cycling differed between grazed and ungrazed rough fescue grasslands (Willms, 1988). At a watershed scale, heavy grazing lead to larger summer storm and spring snow melt runoff compared to watersheds with less grazing (Chanasyk, 2002). The quantity and quality of surface runoff from these watersheds showed that grazing posed little risk of nutrient contamination of adjacent streams (Mapfumo, 2002). There was less snow accumulation in heavily and moderately grazed watersheds (Willms, 2006). A study on the effects of grazing on germinable seeds found that soil disturbance in fescue grassland is more likely to lead to a seral community dominated by annual broad-leafed plants, than a rough fescue dominated grassland (Willms, 1995). Skim grazing (light, once-over-spring defoliation) by cattle was not conducive to rough fescue conservation (Moisey, 2005). Rough fescue tolerated light winter-early spring elk grazing but not heavy grazing (Thrift, 2013). A rough fescue grassland in Rumsey Block, Alberta Canada tolerated moderate grazing which resulted in a community co-dominated with shortbristle needle and thread while heavy grazing and/or moderate to major oil and gas disturbance crossed a threshold requiring complete eradication of species and reseeding (Desserud, 2014). Another study of effects of human caused disturbance in rough fescue grasslands in Manitoba Canada, found it depends on invasive species introduction history (Gifford, 2013). Kentucky bluegrass tolerates grazing and can increase in abundance after heavy grazing. Therefore, Kentucky bluegrass resided in historically grazed areas, while smooth brome occurred along roads. In a study of smooth brome on rough fescue grasslands in Saskatchewan Canada, found that it is likely the combination of traits of smooth brome (higher productivity, abundant production of lower quality litter, clonal growth, and greater nutrient uptake capability) that allows it to invade native prairie (Piper, 2015). Smooth brome had a consistent negative impact on community structure and function across 8 grasslands in Alberta Canada with the impact on native species richness higher in species rich areas, while impact on native biomass was larger in productive, warmer and more variable sites (Stotz, 2016).
The noxious weed spotted knapweed was found to strongly reduce the final biomass and reproduction of native Idaho fescue grasslands. An insect biocontrol agent had little effect on spotted knapweed, while a native fungal pathogen killed it in a common garden experiment in Missoula Montana (Ridenour, 2003). Perry (2005) found that invasion of grasslands by spotted knapweed are mediated by root exudation of catechin, a potent phytotoxin. Catechin resistance was positively correlated with mean seed mass for eight species identified as resistant: Mountain brome, curlycup gumweed, needle and thread grass, basin wildrye, cicer milkvetch, boreal sweetvetch, common blanketflower, and alfalfa. Perry (2005) further found that residual soil catechin may interfere with reestablishment of native grassland species even after spotted knapweed populations are controlled.
Leafy spurge has an extensive rhizomatous root system, potential allelopathic properties and all parts contain high starch latex which seals wounds and is a possible deterrent against insect attacks. Areas with leafy spurge invasion that have been treated with herbicide application and mechanical removal still had higher bare ground area, significantly lower soil arthropod densities and lower plant species richness and cover (Pritekel, 2006). Jordan (2008) found that invasive plants, specifically leafy spurge, smooth brome and crested wheatgrass, are capable of modifying soil microbiota to facilitate further invasion by conspecifics and other invasive species. These soil alterations have the potential to impede restoration of native communities after removal of an invasive species. Successional management may require repeated treatments to achieve a desired outcome. Pokorny (2009) found that while broadleaf herbicide applications decreased hoary cress, Canada thistle and undesired forbs within a leafy spurge invaded site, the results were temporary, and seeding was necessary for native species establishment.
Community Phase 1.1: rough fescue (shrubby cinquefoil/Idaho fescue/yarrow-northern bedstraw-bluebell bellflower
This phase is dominated by rough fescue with associated montane grasses, primarily Idaho fescue, forb species, and shrubs in very low cover, primarily shrubby cinquefoil.
Community Phase 1.2: Saskatoon serviceberry (kinnikinnick-sulphur flower buckwheat)/rough fescue-Idaho fescue/yarrow
This phase is dominated by serviceberry and shrubby cinquefoil in the overstory and by rough fescue in the understory. The same suite of montane shrubs, grasses, and forbs found in Phase 2.1 are found in this phase.
Community Phase Pathway 1.1A
This pathway represents a significant time without fire, such that the historic fire return interval is lengthened, and shrub and conifer species invade.
Community Phase Pathway 1.2A
This pathway represents a resumption of historic fire return intervals, such that woody shrub and conifer encroachment is killed, and grasslands are sustained.
Community Phase 2.1: rough fescue (shrubby cinquefoil/Idaho fescue/yarrow-northern bedstraw-bluebell bellflower
This phase is dominated by rough fescue with associated montane grasses, primarily Idaho fescue, forb species, and shrubs in very low cover, primarily shrubby cinquefoil. This ecological site has high foliar cover (average 81%), low to moderate basal cover (10-15%) and high litter cover (average 85%) under the litter is soil.
Community Phase 2.2
This community has sustained either severe drought or heavy grazing, which has reduced the cover and vigor of rough fescue and increased the cover of Idaho fescue, needlegrass species, and prairie Junegrass. If even these native bunchgrasses decreased significantly, then a transition would occur out of this State 2.
Community Phase 2.3: Saskatoon serviceberry (kinnikinnick-sulphur flower buckwheat)/rough fescue-Idaho fescue/yarrow
This phase is dominated by serviceberry and shrubby cinquefoil in the overstory and by rough fescue in the understory. The same suite of montane shrubs, grasses, and forbs found in Phase 2.1 are found in this phase.
Community Phase Pathway 2.1A
This pathway represents heavy grazing or improper grazing management for sustained periods of time.
Community Phase Pathway 2.2A
This pathway represents a ceasing of heavy grazing or improper grazing management for sustained periods of time.
Community Phase Pathway 2.1B
This pathway represents a significant time without fire, such that the historic fire return interval is lengthened, and shrub and conifer species invade.
Community Phase Pathway 2.3A
This pathway represents a resumption of historic fire return intervals, such that woody shrub and conifer encroachment is killed, and grasslands are sustained.
Transition T1A:
This represents the pathway from the historic Reference state in which there were no weedy species present in the vegetation community (State 1.0), to the introduction and establishment of weedy species, even at very low canopy cover values, within the vegetation community of State 2.0.
Transition T2A:
This pathway represents weed infestation from human, animal, or transportation corridors that allow non-native species to invade and establish within the grassland to the degree that native grass species decline.
Restoration R3A:
This pathway represents proper grazing management that allows the cover and vigor of native bunchgrass, particularly rough fescue, to be restored. Other means such as chemical, mechanical, or biological may be needed to restore native bunchgrass species to dominance.
Summarization of canopy cover data including constancy and canopy cover values (average, minimum and maximum) per species present at community phase 2.1 of this ecological site, 7 sites (includes NPS original data and NRCS revisit vegetation data). Rough fescue (21% average canopy cover) and Idaho fescue (9% average canopy cover) are indicator species for this ecological site with high frequency of occurrence and canopy cover. Other species with high frequency of occurrence include yarrow, shrubby cinquefoil, northern bedstraw and sulphur-flower buckwheat.
Summarization table for foliar cover at community phase 2.1 of this ecological site, 3 NRCS sites. Rough fescue dominates the foliar cover at these sites. Secondarily, Idaho fescue, blue wildrye, shrubby cinquefoil, northern bedstraw and yarrow contribute to foliar cover. Foliar cover is high at these sites (81%) and the ground cover is predominantly litter with soil underneath (85%) and very low bare ground (1%). There is some gravel (10%) and moss (3%). Structure at this vegetation community is composed of three layers. Species in the taller layer (25-51 cm or 10-20 inches) include sticky purple geranium, rough fescue, serviceberry, shrubby cinquefoil, pinegrass, idaho fescue and nineleaf biscuitroot. The middle layer is 15-23 cm or 6-9 inches tall and includes alpine leafybract aster, sulphur-flower buckwheat, northern bedstraw, dwarf bilberry. The lowest layer is 15 cm 6 inches or less and includes yellow penstemon, poa, sedum and vicia species.
Summarization of production in pounds per acre at community phase 2.1 of this ecological site, 2 NRCS sites. Rough fescue dominates the average annual production, secondarily these species contribute: sulphur-flower buckwheat, shrubby cinquefoil, northern bedstraw, Idaho fescue and alpine leafybract aster.
SPECIES TOTAL PRODUCTION AVERAGE= 1651#/ACRE (range= 1514#/acre-1789#/acre) 2SITES
Summarization of canopy cover point data for community phase 2.3 of this ecological site including constancy and canopy cover values per species present at this site, 6 NRCS sites. Species with high constancy occur often, those with low constancy are rare. The average canopy cover is the average of the values for which it occurred. Therefore, species that are rare (only occurred once) show the canopy cover value for the one time it was found. Minimum and maximum canopy cover show the range of cover that the species was found. This is the shrub dominated community phase of this ecological site with serviceberry, sulphur-flower buckwheat and shrubby cinquefoil occurring frequently with moderate to high canopy cover. Infrequently, kinnickinnik and common snowberry occurs with moderate frequency of occurrence and canopy cover.
Foliar cover point data for community phase 2.3 of this ecological site, three NRCS sites. Species with high ranges of foliar cover include shrubby cinquefoil, white spirea, thimbleberry, yellow penstemon, pinegrass, and western meadowrue.
TOTAL FOLIAR COVER 69-99% 3 SITES
SPECIES FOLIAR COVER RANGE IN PERCENT
Summarization of production point data for community phase 2.3 of this ecological site in pounds per acre, at one NRCS site. Rough fescue and dwarf bilberry dominate the average annual production. Species with moderate production include pinegrass, shrubby cinquefoil, pale agoseris, strawberry and lupine species.
SPECIES TOTAL PRODUCTION 1896 1 SITES
State 3.0:
This state represents the community with significant increase in weedy species and concomitant decrease in native grass species.
Community Phase 3.1:
This community phase is dominated by the weedy species phleum pratense, poa pratensis, taraxacum offinale and Centaurea stoebe with less amounts of the native vegetation community of this ecological site found in 2.1. Shrubs generally are very low and cover no more than 10 percent of the site. Diverse montane meadow forbs are associated with this site. Tree encroachment is very low, mainly consisting of lodgepole pine at the edges of the prairie.
Community Phase 3.2:
This community has sustained shrub or tree encroachment due to a lack of fire, and is dominated by the weedy species phleum pratense, poa pratensis, taraxacum offinale and Centaurea stoebe with less amounts of the native vegetation community of this ecological site found in 2.3.
Community Phase Pathway 3.1A
This pathway represents a significant time without fire, such that the historical fire return interval is lengthened, and shrub species invade. Weedy species are still present within the community.
Community Phase Pathway 3.2A
This pathway represents a resumption of historic fire return intervals, such that woody shrub and conifer encroachment is killed, and grasslands are sustained.
State and transition model
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State 1 submodel, plant communities
State 2 submodel, plant communities
State 3 submodel, plant communities
State 1
Historic Reference State
1.0 Historic Reference State with No Weedy Species Present
Community 1.1
Reference Community Phase
Plant Community 1.1 rough fescue (shrubby cinquefoil /Idaho fescue/ yarrow-northern bedstraw- bluebell bellflower)
Community 1.2
Shrub Encroachment
Plant Community 1.2 Shrub Encroachment Shrubby cinquefoil-Saskatoon serviceberry(kinnikinnick-Sulphur-flower buckwheat)/rough fescue-Idaho fescue/yarrow
Pathway 1.1A
Community 1.1 to 1.2
1.1A Significant time without fire, so that the historical fire return interval is lengthened and shrub and conifer species invade.
Pathway 1.2A
Community 1.2 to 1.1
1.2A A resumption of historic fire return intervals, so that woody shrub and conifer encroachments are suppressed, and grasslands are sustained.
State 2
Current Potential State
2.0 Current Potential State With Very Low Cover of Weedy Species
Community 2.1
Current Potential Community Phase
Plant Community 2.1 rough fescue shrubby cinquefoil/Idaho fescue/yarrow-northern bedstraw- bluebell bellflower Community Phase 2.1: rough fescue (shrubby cinquefoil/Idaho fescue/yarrow-northern bedstraw-bluebell bellflower This phase is dominated by rough fescue with associated montane grasses, primarily Idaho fescue, forb species, and shrubs in very low cover, primarily shrubby cinquefoil. This ecological site has high foliar cover (average 81%), low to moderate basal cover (10-15%) and high litter cover (average 85%) under the litter is soil. Summarization of canopy cover data per species present at community phase 2.1 of this ecological site, 7 sites (includes NPS original data and NRCS revisit vegetation data). Rough fescue (21% average canopy cover) and Idaho fescue (9% average canopy cover) are indicator species for this ecological site with high frequency of occurrence and canopy cover. Other species with high frequency of occurrence include yarrow, shrubby cinquefoil, northern bedstraw and sulphur-flower buckwheat. Summarization table for foliar cover at community phase 2.1 of this ecological site, 3 NRCS sites. Total foliar cover range is 76 percent to 88 percent. Rough fescue dominates the foliar cover at these sites. Secondarily, Idaho fescue, blue wildrye, shrubby cinquefoil, northern bedstraw and yarrow contribute to foliar cover. Foliar cover is high at these sites (81%) and the ground cover is predominantly litter with soil underneath (85%) and very low bare ground (1%). There is some gravel (10%) and moss (3%). Structure at this vegetation community is composed of three layers. Species in the taller layer (25-51 cm or 10-20 inches) include sticky purple geranium, rough fescue, serviceberry, shrubby cinquefoil, pinegrass, idaho fescue and nineleaf biscuitroot. The middle layer is 15-23 cm or 6-9 inches tall and includes alpine leafybract aster, sulphur-flower buckwheat, northern bedstraw, dwarf bilberry. The lowest layer is 15 cm 6 inches or less and includes yellow penstemon, poa, sedum and vicia species. Summarization of production in pounds per acre at community phase 2.1 of this ecological site, 2 NRCS sites. Total production averages 1651 and ranges 1514 to 1789 pounds per acre. Rough fescue dominates the average annual production, secondarily these species contribute: sulphur-flower buckwheat, shrubby cinquefoil, northern bedstraw, Idaho fescue and alpine leafybract aster.
Dominant plant species
-
shrubby cinquefoil (Dasiphora fruticosa), shrub
-
rough fescue (Festuca campestris), grass
-
Idaho fescue (Festuca idahoensis), grass
-
common yarrow (Achillea millefolium), other herbaceous
-
northern bedstraw (Galium boreale), other herbaceous
-
bluebell bellflower (Campanula rotundifolia), other herbaceous
Figure 12. Annual production by plant type (representative values) or group (midpoint values)
Table 5. Ground cover
Tree foliar cover | 0-5% |
---|---|
Shrub/vine/liana foliar cover | 0-20% |
Grass/grasslike foliar cover | 30-80% |
Forb foliar cover | 10-30% |
Non-vascular plants | 0-5% |
Biological crusts | 0-1% |
Litter | 40-60% |
Surface fragments >0.25" and <=3" | 0-10% |
Surface fragments >3" | 0-5% |
Bedrock | 0% |
Water | 0% |
Bare ground | 0-5% |
Table 6. Soil surface cover
Tree basal cover | 0% |
---|---|
Shrub/vine/liana basal cover | 0-5% |
Grass/grasslike basal cover | 10-20% |
Forb basal cover | 5-10% |
Non-vascular plants | 0-5% |
Biological crusts | 0-2% |
Litter | 40-60% |
Surface fragments >0.25" and <=3" | 0-10% |
Surface fragments >3" | 0-10% |
Bedrock | 0% |
Water | 0% |
Bare ground | 0-5% |
Table 7. Canopy structure (% cover)
Height Above Ground (ft) | Tree | Shrub/Vine | Grass/ Grasslike |
Forb |
---|---|---|---|---|
<0.5 | – | 0-10% | 0-10% | 0-20% |
>0.5 <= 1 | – | 0-10% | 5-30% | 5-20% |
>1 <= 2 | – | 0-10% | 5-30% | 0-10% |
>2 <= 4.5 | – | – | – | – |
>4.5 <= 13 | – | – | – | – |
>13 <= 40 | – | – | – | – |
>40 <= 80 | – | – | – | – |
>80 <= 120 | – | – | – | – |
>120 | – | – | – | – |
Community 2.2
Increaser Species
Plant Community 2.2 Degraded, increasing Idaho fescue, needlegrasses, prairie Junegrass, Parry’s oatgrass, decreasing rough fescue.
Community 2.3
Shrub Encroachment
Plant Community 2.3 Shrub Encroachment Shrubby cinquefoil-Saskatoon serviceberry (kinnikinnick-Sulphur-flower buckwheat)/ rough fescue-Idaho fescue/yarrow Summarization of canopy cover point data for community phase 2.3 of this ecological site per species present at this site, 6 NRCS sites. Minimum and maximum canopy cover show the range of cover that the species was found. This is the shrub dominated community phase of this ecological site with serviceberry, sulphur-flower buckwheat and shrubby cinquefoil occurring frequently with moderate to high canopy cover. Infrequently, kinnickinnik and common snowberry occurs with moderate frequency of occurrence and canopy cover. Foliar cover point data for community phase 2.3 of this ecological site, three NRCS sites. Species with high ranges of foliar cover include shrubby cinquefoil, white spirea, thimbleberry, yellow penstemon, pinegrass, and western meadowrue. Summarization of production point data for community phase 2.3 of this ecological site in pounds per acre, at one NRCS site with a total production of 1900 pounds per acre. Rough fescue and dwarf bilberry dominate the average annual production. Species with moderate production include pinegrass, shrubby cinquefoil, pale agoseris, strawberry and lupine species.
Dominant plant species
-
shrubby cinquefoil (Dasiphora fruticosa), shrub
-
Saskatoon serviceberry (Amelanchier alnifolia), shrub
-
kinnikinnick (Arctostaphylos uva-ursi), shrub
-
sulphur-flower buckwheat (Eriogonum umbellatum), shrub
-
rough fescue (Festuca campestris), grass
-
Idaho fescue (Festuca idahoensis), grass
-
common yarrow (Achillea millefolium), other herbaceous
Figure 13. Annual production by plant type (representative values) or group (midpoint values)
Table 8. Ground cover
Tree foliar cover | 0-5% |
---|---|
Shrub/vine/liana foliar cover | 0-20% |
Grass/grasslike foliar cover | 20-60% |
Forb foliar cover | 10-30% |
Non-vascular plants | 0-5% |
Biological crusts | 0-1% |
Litter | 50-80% |
Surface fragments >0.25" and <=3" | 0-10% |
Surface fragments >3" | 0-5% |
Bedrock | 0% |
Water | 0% |
Bare ground | 0-10% |
Table 9. Soil surface cover
Tree basal cover | 0-2% |
---|---|
Shrub/vine/liana basal cover | 0-10% |
Grass/grasslike basal cover | 10-30% |
Forb basal cover | 0-10% |
Non-vascular plants | 0-5% |
Biological crusts | 0-1% |
Litter | 50-80% |
Surface fragments >0.25" and <=3" | 0-10% |
Surface fragments >3" | 0-5% |
Bedrock | 0% |
Water | 0% |
Bare ground | 0-10% |
Table 10. Canopy structure (% cover)
Height Above Ground (ft) | Tree | Shrub/Vine | Grass/ Grasslike |
Forb |
---|---|---|---|---|
<0.5 | 0-2% | 0-10% | 5-20% | 0-10% |
>0.5 <= 1 | 0-2% | 0-10% | 5-20% | 0-10% |
>1 <= 2 | 0-2% | 0-20% | 20-40% | 0-10% |
>2 <= 4.5 | – | – | – | – |
>4.5 <= 13 | – | – | – | – |
>13 <= 40 | – | – | – | – |
>40 <= 80 | – | – | – | – |
>80 <= 120 | – | – | – | – |
>120 | – | – | – | – |
Pathway 2.1A
Community 2.1 to 2.2
2.1A Heavy grazing or improper grazing management for sustained periods of time.
Pathway 2.1A
Community 2.1 to 2.3
2.1A Heavy grazing or improper grazing management for sustained periods of time.
Pathway 2.2A
Community 2.2 to 2.1
2.2A A ceasing of heavy grazing or improper grazing management for sustained periods of time.
Pathway 2.3A
Community 2.3 to 2.1
2.3A A resumption of historic fire return intervals, so that woody shrub and conifer encroachments are suppressed, and grasslands are sustained.
State 3
Invaded State
Invaded State
Community 3.1
Weedy Community Phase
Plant Community 3.1 timothy-Kentucky bluegrass (rough fescue-Idaho fescue)/dandelion-spotted knapweed (prairie smoke-sticky geranium)
Community 3.2
Shrub Encroached Weedy Community Phase
Plant Community 3.2 Saskatoon serviceberry-kinnikinnick-mountain big sagebrush-shrubby cinquefoil-common juniper-Wood’s rose-snowberry-dwarf huckleberry/timothy-Kentucky bluegrass (rough fescue-Idaho fescue)/dandelion-spotted knapweed (prairie smoke-sticky geranium)
Pathway 3.1A
Community 3.1 to 3.2
3.1A Significant time without fire, so that the historical fire return interval is lengthened and shrub species invade.
Pathway 3.2A
Community 3.2 to 3.1
3.2A Resumption of historic fire return intervals, so that woody shrub and conifer encroachments are suppressed, and grasslands are sustained.
Transition T1A
State 1 to 2
T1A The introduction and establishment of weedy species, even at very low canopy cover values.
Transition T2A
State 2 to 3
T2A Weed infestation from human, animal, or transportation corridors that allow non-native species to invade and establish within the grassland to the degree that native grass species decline.
Restoration pathway R3A
State 3 to 2
R3A Proper grazing management that allows the cover and vigor of native bunchgrass, particularly rough fescue, to be restored. Other means such as chemical, mechanical, or biological may be needed to restore native bunchgrass species to dominance.
Additional community tables
Table 11. Community 2.1 plant community composition
Group | Common name | Symbol | Scientific name | Annual production (lb/acre) | Foliar cover (%) | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Grass/Grasslike
|
||||||
1 | Grasses and sedges | – | ||||
rough fescue | FECA4 | Festuca campestris | 0–1000 | 0–50 | ||
Idaho fescue | FEID | Festuca idahoensis | 0–200 | 0–30 | ||
timber oatgrass | DAIN | Danthonia intermedia | 0–20 | 0–2 | ||
spike trisetum | TRSP2 | Trisetum spicatum | 0–20 | 0– | ||
rough bentgrass | AGSC5 | Agrostis scabra | 0– | 0–25 | ||
blue wildrye | ELGL | Elymus glaucus | 0– | 0–20 | ||
sedge | CAREX | Carex | 0– | 0–2 | ||
Shrub/Vine
|
||||||
2 | Shrubs and subshrubs | – | ||||
sulphur-flower buckwheat | ERUM | Eriogonum umbellatum | 0–500 | 0–15 | ||
shrubby cinquefoil | DAFR6 | Dasiphora fruticosa | 0–250 | 0–20 | ||
pussytoes | ANTEN | Antennaria | 0–100 | 0–4 | ||
thimbleberry | RUPA | Rubus parviflorus | 0– | 0–10 | ||
rose meadowsweet | SPSPS | Spiraea splendens var. splendens | 0– | 0–5 | ||
prickly currant | RILA | Ribes lacustre | 0– | 0–2 | ||
Forb
|
||||||
3 | Perennial and annual forbs | – | ||||
northern bedstraw | GABO2 | Galium boreale | 0–300 | 0–25 | ||
alpine leafybract aster | SYFO2 | Symphyotrichum foliaceum | 0–250 | 0–5 | ||
nineleaf biscuitroot | LOTR2 | Lomatium triternatum | 0–120 | 0–1 | ||
common yarrow | ACMI2 | Achillea millefolium | 0–100 | 0–15 | ||
pale agoseris | AGGL | Agoseris glauca | 0–100 | 0– | ||
yellow penstemon | PECO6 | Penstemon confertus | 0–70 | 0–5 | ||
silver cinquefoil | POAR8 | Potentilla argentea | 0–70 | 0–5 | ||
lupine | LUPIN | Lupinus | 0–50 | 0–3 | ||
sandwort | ARENA | Arenaria | 0–40 | 0–15 | ||
bluebell bellflower | CARO2 | Campanula rotundifolia | 0–40 | 0–2 | ||
Virginia strawberry | FRVI | Fragaria virginiana | 0–40 | 0– | ||
wormleaf stonecrop | SEST2 | Sedum stenopetalum | 0–40 | 0– | ||
pale agoseris | AGGL | Agoseris glauca | 0–25 | 0– | ||
white sweetvetch | HESU | Hedysarum sulphurescens | 0–25 | 0– | ||
aster | ASTER | Aster | 0–20 | 0–3 | ||
Pacific anemone | ANMU | Anemone multifida | 0–15 | 0–2 | ||
pointedtip mariposa lily | CAAP | Calochortus apiculatus | 0–5 | 0– | ||
Eaton's aster | SYEA2 | Symphyotrichum eatonii | 0– | 0–6 | ||
fireweed | CHAN9 | Chamerion angustifolium | 0– | 0–6 | ||
woolly groundsel | PACA15 | Packera cana | 0– | 0–2 | ||
heartleaf arnica | ARCO9 | Arnica cordifolia | 0– | 0–2 | ||
broadleaf arnica | ARLA8 | Arnica latifolia | 0– | 0–2 | ||
Lyall's angelica | ANAR3 | Angelica arguta | 0– | 0–2 | ||
boat thatching grass | HYCY2 | Hyparrhenia cymbaria | 0– | 0–1 | ||
desertparsley | LOMAT | Lomatium | 0– | 0–1 | ||
rocky ragwort | SEME | Senecio megacephalus | 0– | 0–1 |
Table 12. Community 2.1 forest understory composition
Common name | Symbol | Scientific name | Nativity | Height (ft) | Canopy cover (%) | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Grass/grass-like (Graminoids)
|
||||||
rough fescue | FECA4 | Festuca campestris | Native | – | 10.3–60 | |
timber oatgrass | DAIN | Danthonia intermedia | Native | – | 0.5–23.6 | |
Idaho fescue | FEID | Festuca idahoensis | Native | – | 1–20 | |
Richardson's needlegrass | ACRI8 | Achnatherum richardsonii | Native | – | 0–15 | |
prairie Junegrass | KOMA | Koeleria macrantha | Native | – | 0–15 | |
alpine timothy | PHAL2 | Phleum alpinum | Native | – | 0–15 | |
alpine bluegrass | POAL2 | Poa alpina | Native | – | 0–15 | |
rough bentgrass | AGSC5 | Agrostis scabra | Native | – | 0–10 | |
mountain brome | BRMA4 | Bromus marginatus | Native | – | 0–5 | |
green needlegrass | NAVI4 | Nassella viridula | Native | – | 0–3 | |
timothy | PHPR3 | Phleum pratense | Introduced | – | 0–0.8 | |
creeping juniper | JUHO2 | Juniperus horizontalis | Native | – | 0–0.5 | |
Hitchcock's smooth woodrush | LUGLH | Luzula glabrata var. hitchcockii | Native | – | 0–0.5 | |
sedge | CAREX | Carex | Native | – | 0–0.5 | |
Canada bluegrass | POCO | Poa compressa | Native | – | 0–0.5 | |
intermediate wheatgrass | THIN6 | Thinopyrum intermedium | Introduced | – | 0–0.5 | |
spike trisetum | TRSP2 | Trisetum spicatum | Native | – | 0–0.5 | |
Liddon sedge | CAPE7 | Carex petasata | Native | – | 0–0.3 | |
obtuse sedge | CAOB4 | Carex obtusata | Native | – | 0–0.1 | |
arctic rush | JUAR2 | Juncus arcticus | Native | – | 0–0.1 | |
fowl bluegrass | POPA2 | Poa palustris | Native | – | – | |
bluebunch wheatgrass | PSSP6 | Pseudoroegneria spicata | Native | – | – | |
Forb/Herb
|
||||||
lupine | LUPIN | Lupinus | Native | – | 0–37.5 | |
western stoneseed | LIRU4 | Lithospermum ruderale | Native | – | 0–15 | |
blanketflower | GAAR | Gaillardia aristata | Native | – | 0–15 | |
northern bedstraw | GABO2 | Galium boreale | Native | – | 0–15 | |
pointedtip mariposa lily | CAAP | Calochortus apiculatus | Native | – | 0–15 | |
blue wildrye | ELGL | Elymus glaucus | Native | – | 0–10 | |
alpine leafybract aster | SYFO2 | Symphyotrichum foliaceum | Native | – | 0–10 | |
nineleaf biscuitroot | LOTR2 | Lomatium triternatum | Native | – | 0–8 | |
Eaton's aster | SYEA2 | Symphyotrichum eatonii | Native | – | 0–7 | |
pale agoseris | AGGL | Agoseris glauca | Native | – | 0–7 | |
yellow penstemon | PECO6 | Penstemon confertus | Native | – | 0–6.1 | |
common yarrow | ACMI2 | Achillea millefolium | Native | – | 0–5 | |
Lyall's angelica | ANAR3 | Angelica arguta | Native | – | 0–5 | |
roundleaf alumroot | HECY2 | Heuchera cylindrica | Native | – | 0–5 | |
fireweed | CHAN9 | Chamerion angustifolium | Native | – | 0–5 | |
rosy pussytoes | ANRO2 | Antennaria rosea | Native | – | 0–5 | |
broadleaf arnica | ARLA8 | Arnica latifolia | Native | – | 0–5 | |
Sitka valerian | VASI | Valeriana sitchensis | Native | – | 0–5 | |
rocky ragwort | SEME | Senecio megacephalus | Native | – | 0–5 | |
cinquefoil | POTEN | Potentilla | Native | – | 0–3 | |
silver cinquefoil | POAR8 | Potentilla argentea | Introduced | – | 0–3 | |
American bistort | POBI6 | Polygonum bistortoides | Native | – | 0–3 | |
vetch | VICIA | Vicia | Native | – | 0–3 | |
mountain deathcamas | ZIEL2 | Zigadenus elegans | Native | – | 0–3 | |
stonecrop | SEDUM | Sedum | Native | – | 0–3 | |
sandwort | ARENA | Arenaria | Native | – | 0–3 | |
bluebell bellflower | CARO2 | Campanula rotundifolia | Native | – | 0–3 | |
Indian paintbrush | CASTI2 | Castilleja | Native | – | 0–3 | |
sulphur-flower buckwheat | ERUM | Eriogonum umbellatum | Native | – | 0–3 | |
strawberry | FRAGA | Fragaria | Native | – | 0–3 | |
woodland strawberry | FRVE | Fragaria vesca | Native | – | 0–3 | |
Virginia strawberry | FRVI | Fragaria virginiana | Native | – | 0–3 | |
desertparsley | LOMAT | Lomatium | Native | – | 0–3 | |
smallflower woodland-star | LIPA5 | Lithophragma parviflorum | Native | – | 0–3 | |
pearly pussytoes | ANAN2 | Antennaria anaphaloides | Native | – | 0–2.3 | |
western meadow-rue | THOC | Thalictrum occidentale | Native | – | 0–2 | |
slender cinquefoil | POGR9 | Potentilla gracilis | Native | – | 0–2 | |
Bonneville shootingstar | DOCO | Dodecatheon conjugens | Native | – | 0–1.4 | |
American vetch | VIAM | Vicia americana | Native | – | 0–1.2 | |
spearleaf stonecrop | SELA | Sedum lanceolatum | Native | – | 0–1 | |
bastard toadflax | COUM | Comandra umbellata | Native | – | 0–1 | |
Drummond's rockcress | ARDR | Arabis drummondii | Native | – | 0–1 | |
pussytoes | ANTEN | Antennaria | Native | – | 0–1 | |
western pearly everlasting | ANMA | Anaphalis margaritacea | Native | – | 0–1 | |
white sweetvetch | HESU | Hedysarum sulphurescens | Native | – | 0–1 | |
Pacific anemone | ANMU | Anemone multifida | Native | – | 0–0.9 | |
field chickweed | CEAR4 | Cerastium arvense | Native | – | 0–0.8 | |
Missouri goldenrod | SOMI2 | Solidago missouriensis | Native | – | 0–0.8 | |
Rocky Mountain goldenrod | SOMU | Solidago multiradiata | Native | – | 0–0.6 | |
yellow salsify | TRDU | Tragopogon dubius | Introduced | – | 0–0.5 | |
common dandelion | TAOF | Taraxacum officinale | Introduced | – | 0–0.5 | |
green false hellebore | VEVI | Veratrum viride | Native | – | 0–0.5 | |
yellow rattle | RHINA | Rhinanthus | Native | – | 0–0.5 | |
wormleaf stonecrop | SEST2 | Sedum stenopetalum | Native | – | 0–0.5 | |
bladder campion | SILA21 | Silene latifolia | Introduced | – | 0–0.5 | |
Parry's silene | SIPA4 | Silene parryi | Native | – | 0–0.5 | |
spotted knapweed | CEST8 | Centaurea stoebe | Introduced | – | 0–0.5 | |
rockcress | ARABI2 | Arabis | Native | – | 0–0.5 | |
arnica | ARNIC | Arnica | Native | – | 0–0.5 | |
milkvetch | ASTRA | Astragalus | Native | – | 0–0.5 | |
common cowparsnip | HEMA80 | Heracleum maximum | Native | – | 0–0.5 | |
wild chives | ALSC | Allium schoenoprasum | Native | – | 0–0.5 | |
old man's whiskers | GETR | Geum triflorum | Native | – | 0–0.5 | |
sticky purple geranium | GEVI2 | Geranium viscosissimum | Native | – | 0–0.5 | |
beardtongue | PENST | Penstemon | Native | – | 0–0.5 | |
yellow owl's-clover | ORLU2 | Orthocarpus luteus | Native | – | 0–0.5 | |
woolly groundsel | PACA15 | Packera cana | Native | – | 0–0.5 | |
bracted lousewort | PEBR | Pedicularis bracteosa | Native | – | 0–0.5 | |
coiled lousewort | PECO | Pedicularis contorta | Native | – | 0–0.5 | |
narrowleaf hawkweed | HIUM | Hieracium umbellatum | Native | – | 0–0.4 | |
Wyoming besseya | BEWY | Besseya wyomingensis | Native | – | 0–0.3 | |
small camas | CAQU2 | Camassia quamash | Native | – | 0–0.3 | |
woolly cinquefoil | POHI6 | Potentilla hippiana | Native | – | 0–0.3 | |
Yellowstone saxifrage | SASU6 | Saxifraga subapetala | Native | – | 0–0.1 | |
smooth blue aster | SYLA3 | Symphyotrichum laeve | Native | – | 0–0.1 | |
Cusick's Indian paintbrush | CACU7 | Castilleja cusickii | Native | – | 0–0.1 | |
American thorow wax | BUAM2 | Bupleurum americanum | Native | – | 0–0.1 | |
Nuttall's rockcress | ARNU | Arabis nuttallii | Native | – | 0–0.1 | |
aspen fleabane | ERSP4 | Erigeron speciosus | Native | – | 0–0.1 | |
Fern/fern ally
|
||||||
common moonwort | BOLU | Botrychium lunaria | Native | – | 0–0.1 | |
Shrub/Subshrub
|
||||||
shrubby cinquefoil | DAFR6 | Dasiphora fruticosa | Native | – | 0.5–20 | |
kinnikinnick | ARUV | Arctostaphylos uva-ursi | Native | – | 0–3 | |
Woods' rose | ROWO | Rosa woodsii | Native | – | 0–3 | |
prickly rose | ROAC | Rosa acicularis | Native | – | 0–1.4 | |
thimbleberry | RUPA | Rubus parviflorus | Native | – | 0–1 | |
rose meadowsweet | SPSPS | Spiraea splendens var. splendens | Native | – | 0–1 | |
Saskatoon serviceberry | AMAL2 | Amelanchier alnifolia | Native | – | 0–1 | |
common snowberry | SYAL | Symphoricarpos albus | Native | – | 0–0.5 | |
Nonvascular
|
||||||
Moss | 2MOSS | Moss | Native | – | 0–3 | |
spikemoss | SELAG | Selaginella | Native | – | 0–0.3 |
Table 13. Community 2.3 plant community composition
Group | Common name | Symbol | Scientific name | Annual production (lb/acre) | Foliar cover (%) | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Grass/Grasslike
|
||||||
1 | Grasses and sedges and woodrushes | – | ||||
rough fescue | FECA4 | Festuca campestris | 100–700 | 0–3 | ||
pinegrass | CARU | Calamagrostis rubescens | 0–400 | 0–20 | ||
alpine bluegrass | POAL2 | Poa alpina | 0–30 | – | ||
Kentucky bluegrass | POPR | Poa pratensis | 0–20 | – | ||
timber oatgrass | DAIN | Danthonia intermedia | 0–10 | – | ||
sedge | CAREX | Carex | – | 0–15 | ||
Richardson's needlegrass | ACRI8 | Achnatherum richardsonii | – | 0–8 | ||
Idaho fescue | FEID | Festuca idahoensis | – | 0–6 | ||
Hitchcock's smooth woodrush | LUGLH | Luzula glabrata var. hitchcockii | – | 0–5 | ||
mountain brome | BRMA4 | Bromus marginatus | – | 0–5 | ||
Shrub/Vine
|
||||||
2 | Shrubs and subshrubs | – | ||||
dwarf bilberry | VACE | Vaccinium cespitosum | 0–700 | 0–3 | ||
shrubby cinquefoil | DAFR6 | Dasiphora fruticosa | 0–250 | 0–30 | ||
Saskatoon serviceberry | AMAL2 | Amelanchier alnifolia | 0–70 | 0–12 | ||
thimbleberry | RUPA | Rubus parviflorus | – | 0–25 | ||
sulphur-flower buckwheat | ERUM | Eriogonum umbellatum | – | 0–15 | ||
pussytoes | ANTEN | Antennaria | – | 0–5 | ||
red baneberry | ACRU2 | Actaea rubra | – | 0–1 | ||
white spirea | SPBE2 | Spiraea betulifolia | – | – | ||
Forb
|
||||||
3 | Perennial and annual forbs | – | ||||
Virginia strawberry | FRVI | Fragaria virginiana | 0–300 | 0–7 | ||
lupine | LUPIN | Lupinus | 0–300 | 0–3 | ||
pale agoseris | AGGL | Agoseris glauca | 0–300 | – | ||
yellow penstemon | PECO6 | Penstemon confertus | 0–140 | 0–20 | ||
silver cinquefoil | POAR8 | Potentilla argentea | 0–140 | – | ||
ragwort | SENEC | Senecio | 0–130 | 0–1 | ||
nineleaf biscuitroot | LOTR2 | Lomatium triternatum | 0–100 | 0–2 | ||
northern bedstraw | GABO2 | Galium boreale | 0–60 | 0–7 | ||
common yarrow | ACMI2 | Achillea millefolium | 0–50 | 0–10 | ||
western meadow-rue | THOC | Thalictrum occidentale | 0–30 | 0–25 | ||
western pearly everlasting | ANMA | Anaphalis margaritacea | 0–30 | 0–5 | ||
sandwort | ARENA | Arenaria | 0–20 | – | ||
bluebell bellflower | CARO2 | Campanula rotundifolia | 0–5 | – | ||
common dandelion | TAOF | Taraxacum officinale | 0–5 | – | ||
alpine leafybract aster | SYFO2 | Symphyotrichum foliaceum | 0– | 0–10 | ||
fireweed | CHAN9 | Chamerion angustifolium | 0– | 0–7 | ||
white thistle | CIHO | Cirsium hookerianum | 0– | 0–6 | ||
common cowparsnip | HEMA80 | Heracleum maximum | 0– | 0–4 | ||
coiled lousewort | PECO | Pedicularis contorta | 0– | 0–4 | ||
splitleaf Indian paintbrush | CARH4 | Castilleja rhexiifolia | 0– | 0–3 | ||
Lyall's angelica | ANAR3 | Angelica arguta | 0– | 0–3 | ||
Queen Anne's lace | DACA6 | Daucus carota | 0– | 0–2 | ||
white sweetvetch | HESU | Hedysarum sulphurescens | 0– | 0–2 | ||
helianthella | HELIA | Helianthella | 0– | 0–2 | ||
Sitka valerian | VASI | Valeriana sitchensis | 0– | 0–1 | ||
violet | VIOLA | Viola | 0– | 0–1 | ||
western sweetroot | OSOC | Osmorhiza occidentalis | 0– | 0–1 | ||
catchfly | SILEN | Silene | 0– | 0–1 | ||
Rocky Mountain goldenrod | SOMU | Solidago multiradiata | 0– | 0–1 | ||
Rocky Mountain iris | IRMI | Iris missouriensis | 0– | 0–1 | ||
sticky purple geranium | GEVI2 | Geranium viscosissimum | 0– | 0–1 | ||
Jessica sticktight | HAMI | Hackelia micrantha | 0– | 0–1 | ||
white sagebrush | ARLU | Artemisia ludoviciana | 0– | 0–1 |
Table 14. Community 2.3 forest understory composition
Common name | Symbol | Scientific name | Nativity | Height (ft) | Canopy cover (%) | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Grass/grass-like (Graminoids)
|
||||||
rough fescue | FECA4 | Festuca campestris | – | – | 0–37.5 | |
Idaho fescue | FEID | Festuca idahoensis | – | – | 0–15 | |
Kentucky bluegrass | POPR | Poa pratensis | – | – | 0–10 | |
mountain brome | BRMA4 | Bromus marginatus | – | – | 0–5 | |
sedge | CAREX | Carex | – | – | 0–5 | |
Geyer's sedge | CAGE2 | Carex geyeri | – | – | 0–3 | |
Richardson's needlegrass | ACRI8 | Achnatherum richardsonii | – | – | 0–3 | |
bluebunch wheatgrass | PSSP6 | Pseudoroegneria spicata | – | – | 0–3 | |
timothy | PHPR3 | Phleum pratense | – | – | 0–2 | |
Hitchcock's smooth woodrush | LUGLH | Luzula glabrata var. hitchcockii | – | – | 0–2 | |
alpine timothy | PHAL2 | Phleum alpinum | – | – | 0–1 | |
alpine bluegrass | POAL2 | Poa alpina | – | – | 0–0.5 | |
prairie Junegrass | KOMA | Koeleria macrantha | – | – | 0–0.5 | |
timber oatgrass | DAIN | Danthonia intermedia | – | – | 0–0.5 | |
Forb/Herb
|
||||||
cinquefoil | POTEN | Potentilla | – | – | 0–37.5 | |
lupine | LUPIN | Lupinus | – | – | 0–15 | |
Indian paintbrush | CASTI2 | Castilleja | – | – | 0–15 | |
Virginia strawberry | FRVI | Fragaria virginiana | – | – | 0–10 | |
fireweed | CHAN9 | Chamerion angustifolium | – | – | 0–7 | |
splitleaf Indian paintbrush | CARH4 | Castilleja rhexiifolia | – | – | 0–7 | |
Lyall's angelica | ANAR3 | Angelica arguta | – | – | 0–5 | |
common cowparsnip | HEMA80 | Heracleum maximum | – | – | 0–5 | |
western meadow-rue | THOC | Thalictrum occidentale | – | – | 0–5 | |
alpine leafybract aster | SYFO2 | Symphyotrichum foliaceum | – | – | 0–4 | |
common beargrass | XETE | Xerophyllum tenax | – | – | 0–3 | |
Scouler's woollyweed | HISC2 | Hieracium scouleri | – | – | 0–3 | |
Rocky Mountain iris | IRMI | Iris missouriensis | – | – | 0–3 | |
roundleaf alumroot | HECY2 | Heuchera cylindrica | – | – | 0–3 | |
helianthella | HELIA | Helianthella | – | – | 0–3 | |
nineleaf biscuitroot | LOTR2 | Lomatium triternatum | – | – | 0–3 | |
cream pea | LAOC2 | Lathyrus ochroleucus | – | – | 0–3 | |
western stoneseed | LIRU4 | Lithospermum ruderale | – | – | 0–3 | |
slender cinquefoil | POGR9 | Potentilla gracilis | – | – | 0–3 | |
eastern pasqueflower | PUPA5 | Pulsatilla patens | – | – | 0–3 | |
common yarrow | ACMI2 | Achillea millefolium | – | – | 0–3 | |
bluebell bellflower | CARO2 | Campanula rotundifolia | – | – | 0–3 | |
rosy pussytoes | ANRO2 | Antennaria rosea | – | – | 0–3 | |
white thistle | CIHO | Cirsium hookerianum | – | – | 0–3 | |
knapweed | CENTA | Centaurea | – | – | 0–3 | |
sulphur-flower buckwheat | ERUM | Eriogonum umbellatum | – | – | 0–3 | |
western showy aster | EUCO36 | Eurybia conspicua | – | – | 0–3 | |
blanketflower | GAAR | Gaillardia aristata | – | – | 0–3 | |
northern bedstraw | GABO2 | Galium boreale | – | – | 0–3 | |
fragrant bedstraw | GATR3 | Galium triflorum | – | – | 0–3 | |
aster | ASTER | Aster | – | – | 0–3 | |
sticky purple geranium | GEVI2 | Geranium viscosissimum | – | – | 0–3 | |
woodland strawberry | FRVE | Fragaria vesca | – | – | 0–2 | |
onion | ALLIU | Allium | – | – | 0–2 | |
fernleaf biscuitroot | LODI | Lomatium dissectum | – | – | 0–2 | |
white sweetvetch | HESU | Hedysarum sulphurescens | – | – | 0–1 | |
little yellow rattle | RHMIM | Rhinanthus minor ssp. minor | – | – | 0–1 | |
silver cinquefoil | POAR8 | Potentilla argentea | – | – | 0–1 | |
yellow penstemon | PECO6 | Penstemon confertus | – | – | 0–1 | |
pale agoseris | AGGL | Agoseris glauca | – | – | 0–1 | |
catchfly | SILEN | Silene | – | – | 0–1 | |
goldenrod | SOLID | Solidago | – | – | 0–1 | |
common dandelion | TAOF | Taraxacum officinale | – | – | 0–0.5 | |
sandwort | ARENA | Arenaria | – | – | 0–0.5 | |
wild chives | ALSC | Allium schoenoprasum | – | – | 0–0.5 | |
western pearly everlasting | ANMA | Anaphalis margaritacea | – | – | 0–0.5 | |
Pacific anemone | ANMU | Anemone multifida | – | – | 0–0.5 | |
Richardson's geranium | GERI | Geranium richardsonii | – | – | 0–0.5 | |
Queen Anne's lace | DACA6 | Daucus carota | – | – | 0–0.5 | |
Jessica sticktight | HAMI | Hackelia micrantha | – | – | 0–0.5 | |
western sweetroot | OSOC | Osmorhiza occidentalis | – | – | 0–0.5 | |
Shrub/Subshrub
|
||||||
Saskatoon serviceberry | AMAL2 | Amelanchier alnifolia | – | – | 0–37.5 | |
dwarf bilberry | VACE | Vaccinium cespitosum | – | – | 0–18 | |
russet buffaloberry | SHCA | Shepherdia canadensis | – | – | 0–15 | |
kinnikinnick | ARUV | Arctostaphylos uva-ursi | – | – | 0–15 | |
shrubby cinquefoil | DAFR6 | Dasiphora fruticosa | – | – | 0–15 | |
common snowberry | SYAL | Symphoricarpos albus | – | – | 0–8 | |
white spirea | SPBE2 | Spiraea betulifolia | – | – | 0–7 | |
thimbleberry | RUPA | Rubus parviflorus | – | – | 0–7 | |
rose | ROSA5 | Rosa | – | – | 0–3 | |
Woods' rose | ROWO | Rosa woodsii | – | – | 0–3 | |
creeping barberry | MARE11 | Mahonia repens | – | – | 0–3 | |
white sagebrush | ARLU | Artemisia ludoviciana | – | – | 0–3 | |
vetch | VICIA | Vicia | – | – | 0–3 | |
red baneberry | ACRU2 | Actaea rubra | – | – | 0–0.5 | |
common juniper | JUCO6 | Juniperus communis | – | – | 0–0.5 | |
Tree
|
||||||
quaking aspen | POTR5 | Populus tremuloides | – | – | 0–3 | |
black cottonwood | POBAT | Populus balsamifera ssp. trichocarpa | – | – | 0–3 | |
lodgepole pine | PICO | Pinus contorta | – | – | 0–3 | |
whitebark pine | PIAL | Pinus albicaulis | – | – | 0–0.5 | |
subalpine fir | ABLA | Abies lasiocarpa | – | – | 0–0.5 |
Interpretations
Supporting information
Other references
References
Aiken, S. G.; Darbyshire, S. J. 1990. Fescue grasses of Canada. Publication 1844/E. Ottawa, ON: Agriculture Canada, Research Branch, Biosystematics Research Centre. 102 p.
Cole, David N. 1987. Effects of three seasons of experimental trampling on five montane forest communities and a grassland in western Montana, USA. Biological Conservation. 40: 219-244.
Coupland, Robert T.; Brayshaw, T. Christopher. 1953. The fescue grassland in Saskatchewan. Ecology. 34(2): 386-405.
Cronquist, Arthur; Holmgren, Arthur H.; Holmgren, Noel H.; Reveal, James L.; Holmgren, Patricia K. 1977. Intermountain flora: Vascular plants of the Intermountain West, U.S.A. Vol. 6: The Monocotyledons. New York: Columbia University Press. 584 p.
Damm, Christian. 2001. A phytosociological study of Glacier National Park, Montana, USA, with notes on the syntaxonomy of alpine vegetation in western North America.
Eckert, Richard E., Jr.; Spencer, John S. 1987. Growth and reproduction of grasses heavily grazed under rest-rotation management. Journal of Range Management. 40(2): 156-159.
Hanson, A. A. 1959. Grass varieties in the United States. Agriculture Handbook No. 170. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service. 72 p.
Lackschewitz, Klaus. 1991. Vascular plants of west-central Montana--identification guidebook. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-227. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station. 648 p.
Mueggler, W. F.; Stewart, W. L. 1980. Grassland and shrubland habitat types of western Montana. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-66. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 154 p.
NatureServe, 2007. U.S. National Vegetation Classification Standard: Terrestrial Ecological Classifications. Waterton-Glacier International Peace Park, Local and Global Association Descriptions.
Nimlos, Thomas J.; Van Meter, Wayne P.; Daniels, Lewis A. 1968. Rooting patterns of forest understory species as determined by radioiodine absorption. Ecology. 49(6): 1145-1151.
Pavlick, Leon E.; Looman, Jan. 1984. Taxonomy and nomenclature of rough fescues, Festuca altaica, F. campestris (F. scabrella var. major) and F. hallii in Canada and the U.S. Canadian Journal of Botany. 62: 1739-1749.
Smith, Michael A.; Busby, Fee. 1981. Prescribed burning: effective control of sagebrush in Wyoming. RJ-165. Laramie, WY: University of Wyoming, Agricultural Experiment Station. 12 p.
Soil Survey Staff. 2015. Illustrated guide to soil taxonomy. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service, National Soil Survey Center, Lincoln, Nebraska.
Stubbendieck, James; Hatch, Stephan L.; Butterfield, Charles H. 1992. North American range plants. 4th ed. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press. 493 p.
Tyser, Robin W. 1990. Ecology of fescue grasslands in Glacier National Park. In: Boyce, Mark S.; Plumb, Glenn E., eds. National Park Service Research Center, 14th annual report. Laramie, WY: University of Wyoming, National Park Service Research Center: 59-60.
Montana Native Heritage Program Web Page. Rocky Mountain Foothill, valley grassland.
Contributors
Stephanie Shoemaker
Approval
Kirt Walstad, 5/06/2024
Rangeland health reference sheet
Interpreting Indicators of Rangeland Health is a qualitative assessment protocol used to determine ecosystem condition based on benchmark characteristics described in the Reference Sheet. A suite of 17 (or more) indicators are typically considered in an assessment. The ecological site(s) representative of an assessment location must be known prior to applying the protocol and must be verified based on soils and climate. Current plant community cannot be used to identify the ecological site.
Author(s)/participant(s) | |
---|---|
Contact for lead author | |
Date | 04/29/2024 |
Approved by | Kirt Walstad |
Approval date | |
Composition (Indicators 10 and 12) based on | Annual Production |
Indicators
-
Number and extent of rills:
-
Presence of water flow patterns:
-
Number and height of erosional pedestals or terracettes:
-
Bare ground from Ecological Site Description or other studies (rock, litter, lichen, moss, plant canopy are not bare ground):
-
Number of gullies and erosion associated with gullies:
-
Extent of wind scoured, blowouts and/or depositional areas:
-
Amount of litter movement (describe size and distance expected to travel):
-
Soil surface (top few mm) resistance to erosion (stability values are averages - most sites will show a range of values):
-
Soil surface structure and SOM content (include type of structure and A-horizon color and thickness):
-
Effect of community phase composition (relative proportion of different functional groups) and spatial distribution on infiltration and runoff:
-
Presence and thickness of compaction layer (usually none; describe soil profile features which may be mistaken for compaction on this site):
-
Functional/Structural Groups (list in order of descending dominance by above-ground annual-production or live foliar cover using symbols: >>, >, = to indicate much greater than, greater than, and equal to):
Dominant:
Sub-dominant:
Other:
Additional:
-
Amount of plant mortality and decadence (include which functional groups are expected to show mortality or decadence):
-
Average percent litter cover (%) and depth ( in):
-
Expected annual annual-production (this is TOTAL above-ground annual-production, not just forage annual-production):
-
Potential invasive (including noxious) species (native and non-native). List species which BOTH characterize degraded states and have the potential to become a dominant or co-dominant species on the ecological site if their future establishment and growth is not actively controlled by management interventions. Species that become dominant for only one to several years (e.g., short-term response to drought or wildfire) are not invasive plants. Note that unlike other indicators, we are describing what is NOT expected in the reference state for the ecological site:
-
Perennial plant reproductive capability:
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