Physiographic features

The Sandy Terrace sites are on level to gently sloping stream terraces. Slopes range from 0 to 6 percent. Flooding frequency ranges from very rare to occasional with very brief to brief duration. Occasional flooding typically ranges 5 to 50 times/100 years; for this ecological site it is estimated that flooding occurs less than 20 times/100 years.

*On the Missouri River, very rare, prolonged flooding events may occur when extreme precipitation events increase dam releases

Table 2. Representative physiographic features

Climatic features

MLRA 54 is considered to have a continental climate with cold winters and hot summers, low humidity, light rainfall, and much sunshine. Extremes in temperature are common and characteristic of the MLRA. The continental climate is the result of this MLRA’s location in the geographic center of North America. There are few natural barriers on the northern Great Plains, so air masses move unobstructed across the plains and account for rapid changes in temperature.

Annual precipitation ranges from 14 to 18 inches per year. The normal average annual temperature is about 42° F. January is the coldest month with average temperatures ranging from about 13° F (Beach, ND) to about 16° F (Bison, SD). July is the warmest month with temperatures averaging from about 69° F (Beach, ND) to about 72° F (Timber Lake, SD). The range of normal average monthly temperatures between the coldest and warmest months is about 57° F. This large temperature range attests to the continental nature of MLRA 54’s climate. Wind speeds average about 11 miles per hour, ranging from about 13 miles per hour during the spring to about 10 miles per hour during the summer. Daytime wind speeds are generally stronger than nighttime wind speeds, and occasional strong storms may bring brief periods of high winds with gusts to more than 50 miles per hour.

Growth of native cool-season plants begins in late March and continues through early to mid-July. Native warm-season plants begin growth in mid-May and continue to the end of August. Greening up of cool-season plants can occur again in September and October when adequate soil moisture is present.

Table 3. Representative climatic features

Climate stations used

• (1) LUDLOW 3 SSE [USC00395048], Ludlow, SD

• (2) HEBRON [USC00324102], Hebron, ND

• (3) FT YATES 4 SW [USC00323207], Fort Yates, ND

• (4) DUPREE [USC00392429], Dupree, SD

• (5) HETTINGER [USC00324178], Hettinger, ND

• (6) WATFORD CITY [USC00329233], Watford City, ND

• (7) MANDAN EXP STN [USC00325479], Mandan, ND

Influencing water features

No significant water features influence this site. A seasonal water table is commonly greater than 4 feet deep through much of the growing season; however, during the spring months, it can be as shallow as 42, inches in some soils. Flooding frequency ranges from very rare to occasional with very brief to brief duration. Although occasional flooding typically ranges 5 to 50 times/100 years, for this ecological site it is estimated that flooding occurs less than 20 times/100 years. This is evidenced by lack of sediment layers at the surface and lack of cottonwood regeneration. If the site occurs on floodplain steps with the hydrology (flooding and/or seasonal high water influenced by stream hydrology) and the vegetation appears to be influenced by adjacent stream hydrology, refer to the Riparian Complex ecological site. Some additional water may be received as run-on from uplands during snowmelt and heavy thunderstorms which may increase production in years with high precipitation. Permeability is moderate to moderately rapid. Water loss is through evapotranspiration and percolation below the root zone.

Salinization Risk – The potential salinization of the site can occur in any of the vegetative states; however, it is most prevalent in the State 4.0 Go-Back. Removal of perennial vegetation (e.g., annual cropping), above this ecological site (recharge area), results in increased water moving down through the soil profile. This downward water movement leaches salts over time creating shallow saline groundwater immediately above a less permeable layer. Due to gravity, water moves downward through the soil profile then laterally through a porous layer, such as a coal or sand/gravel seam, transporting salts to the discharge area. Below the porous layer, is a less permeable layer such as soft sedimentary bedrock. Where shallow saline groundwater occurs, salts often concentrate at or near the soil surface through capillary rise (discharge area). In capillary rise, water moves from where the soil is saturated, or nearly so, to drier soil against the force of gravity.

Evaporation at the soil surface dries the soil and “pulls” water by capillary flow from the wet soil zone. Because only pure water evaporates, salts are left behind.

Figure 9. Increased salinity levels will make establishment of grasses and forbs more difficult. Treatment of the recharge area is a requirement to reclaim these soils from salinization. Some salinized soils can be excessively wet making establishment of saline tolerant vegetation difficult

Soil features

Soils associated with the Sandy Terrace ES are in the Entisols order and are classified further as Typic Ustifluvents. These soils were developed under prairie vegetation. They formed in coarse-loamy and sandy stream alluvium. The soils on this site are very deep; they are moderately well drained to excessively drained. Slope ranges from 0 to 6 percent.

The surface layer varies from 2 to 8 inches thick. It is typically fine sandy loam, but sandy loam, loamy fine sand, and loamy sand also occur. The underlying material is stratified sandy, loamy, and silty deposits which average >52 percent sand. If the soil forms a ribbon, it is <1 inch long. Some soils have buried A horizons; a few have lenses of fine gravel in the lower substratum. The soils have a moderately rapid to rapid infiltration rate.

Soil reaction ranges from neutral to moderately alkaline (pH 6.6 to 8.4). Soil salinity and sodicity is none to slight (E.C. <4 dS/m; SAR <4). Calcium carbonate content ranges from 2 to 30 percent.

The soil surface is stable and intact. Sub-surface soil layers are non-restrictive to water movement and root penetration. These soils are susceptible to erosion. The hazard of erosion increases where vegetative cover is not adequate. Loss of the soil surface layer can result in a shift in species composition and/or production.

Major soil series correlated to this ecological site are Trembles and Banks.

Access Web Soil Survey (https://websoilsurvey.sc.egov.usda.gov/App/WebSoilSurvey.aspx) for specific local soils information.

Table 4. Representative soil features

Animal community

Animal Community – Wildlife Interpretations

Landscape

The MLRA 54 landscape is characterized by moderately dissected rolling plains with areas of local badlands, buttes, and isolated hills. MLRA 54 is considered to have a continental climate with cold winters and hot summers, low humidity, light rainfall, and much sunshine. Extremes in temperature are common and characteristic of the MLRA. This area supports natural mixed-grass prairie vegetation with prairie rose, leadplant, and patches of western snowberry interspersed throughout the area. Green ash, chokecherry, and buffaloberry occur in draws and narrow valleys creating woody riparian corridors. Complex intermingled ecological sites create diverse grass/shrub land habitats interspersed with varying densities linear, slope, depressional, and in-stream wetlands associated with headwater streams and tributaries to the Missouri River. These habitats provide critical life-cycle components for many wildlife species.

Historic Communities/Conditions within MLRA:

The northern mixed-grass prairie was a disturbance-driven ecosystem with fire, herbivory, and climate functioning as the primary ecological drivers (either singly or often in combination). Many species of grassland birds, small mammals, insects, reptiles, amphibians, and large herds of roaming American bison, elk, and pronghorn were historically among the inhabitants adapted to this semi-arid region. Roaming herbivores, as well as several small mammal and insect species, were the primary consumers linking the grassland resources to large predators (such as the wolf, mountain lion, and grizzly bear) and smaller carnivores (such as the coyote, bobcat, red fox, and raptors). The black-tailed prairie dog was once abundant and provided ecological services by manipulating the plant and soil community, thus providing habitat for the black-footed ferret, burrowing owl, ferruginous hawk, mountain plover, swift fox, small mammals, and amphibians and reptiles. Extirpated species include free-ranging American bison, grizzly bear, gray wolf, black- footed ferret, mountain plover, and peregrine falcon (breeding). Extinct from the region is the Rocky Mountain locust.

Present Communities/Conditions within MLRA:

Following European influence, domestic livestock grazing, elimination of fire, energy development, and other anthropogenic factors influenced plant community composition and abundance. Agriculture, transportation corridors, and energy development are the main factors contributing to habitat fragmentation, reducing habitat quality for area-sensitive species. These influences fragmented the landscape; reduced or eliminated ecological drivers (fire); and introduced exotic species including smooth brome, crested wheatgrass, Kentucky bluegrass, and leafy spurge. This further impacted plant and animal communities. The loss of the bison, black-tailed prairie dogs, and fire as primary ecological drivers greatly influenced the character of the remaining native plant communities and the associated wildlife, moving towards a less diverse and more homogeneous landscape.

Included in this MLRA are the isolated Killdeer Mountains (limestone capped residual butte) containing bur oak, quaking aspen, green ash, paper birch, and American elm. Except for floodplain forests within the MLRA, the Killdeer Mountains contain the largest deciduous forest in southwestern North Dakota.

Some wildlife species in this area are deer (white-tailed and mule), elk, pronghorn, moose, coyote, red fox, bobcat, prairie rattlesnake, American badger, raccoon, North American porcupine, beaver, striped skunk, American mink, white-tailed jackrabbit, black-tailed prairie dog, Eastern and Merriam’s turkey, golden eagle, ferruginous hawks, sharp-tailed grouse, black-billed magpie, and numerous species of grassland-nesting birds and pollinating insects.

Presence of wildlife species is often determined by ecological site characteristics including grass and forb species, hydrology, aspect, and other associated ecological sites. The home ranges of a majority species are larger than one ecological site or are dependent on more than one ecological site for annual life requisites. Ecological sites offer different habitat elements as the annual life requisites change. Habitat improvement and creation must be conducted within the mobility limits of a known population for the species.

Insects play an important role providing ecological services for plant community development. Insects that are scavengers or aid in decomposition provide the food chain baseline sustaining the carnivorous insects feeding upon them. Many insects provide the ecological services necessary for pollination, keeping plant communities healthy and productive. Insects provide a protein food source for numerous species including grassland-nesting birds and their young.

Species unique to MLRA:

Bald eagle: Bald Eagles prefer large rivers, lakes, reservoirs, or wetlands that are bordered by mature stands of trees or a single large tree. Bald eagles use the Missouri River system, including Lakes Sakakawea and Oahe, and associated tributaries. Mature trees, including cottonwoods, provide nesting sites adjacent to aquatic and upland foraging sites.

Dakota skipper: The extreme northern portion of this MLRA provides limited Dakota skipper habitat. Dakota skipper habitat within MLRA 54 is considered Type B habitat. Type B habitat is described as rolling native-prairie terrain over gravelly glacial moraine deposits dominated by bluestems and needlegrasses with the likely presence of bluebell bellflower, wood lily, blacksamson echinacea, upright prairie coneflower, and blanketflower. The United States Fish and Wildlife Service lists two critical habitat units within the MLRA in McKenzie County, North Dakota.

Golden eagle: The Lake Sakakawea breaks, bluffs, and rock outcroppings within the northwest portion of the MLRA are key areas for golden eagle nesting. Grasslands, shrublands, and black-tailed prairie dog towns are used for foraging.

Black-footed ferret: Black-footed ferrets have been reintroduced as an experimental population in the southern portion of the MLRA located on the Cheyenne Sioux Indian Reservation. Since reintroduction between 1991 and 1996, black-footed ferrets have been documented on the Standing Rock Sioux Indian Reservation approximately 20 miles north of the reintroduction site. Black-footed ferrets rely exclusively on prairie dog towns for shelter, breeding, and food sources (prairie dogs and other species within the town).

Least tern (Interior): Least terns are found on the Missouri River system in MLRA 54. Sparsely vegetated sandbars within the free-flowing portions of the Missouri River or shorelines of Lake Oahe and Sakakawea are used for nesting and foraging.

Species of Concern within the MLRA:

The following is a list of species considered “species of conservation priority” in the North Dakota State Wildlife Action Plan (2015); “species of greatest conservation need” in the Montana State Wildlife Action Plan (2015) and the South Dakota State Wildlife Action Plan (2014); and “species listed as threatened, endangered, or petitioned” under the Endangered Species Act within MLRA 54 at the time this section was developed:

Invertebrates: Dakota skipper, little white tiger beetle, monarch butterfly, Ottoe skipper, regal fritillary, yellow-banded bumble bee, and western bumble bee.

Birds: American Kestrel, Baird’s sparrow, bald eagle, black-billed cuckoo, black tern, bobolink, Brewer’s sparrow, burrowing owl, chestnut-collared longspur, ferruginous hawk, golden eagle, grasshopper sparrow, greater sage-grouse, lark bunting, loggerhead shrike, least tern, long-billed curlew, marbled godwit, McCown’s longspur, mountain plover, northern goshawk, northern harrier, northern pintail, peregrine falcon (migration), piping plover, prairie falcon, red knot (migration), red- headed woodpecker, sharp-tailed grouse, short-eared owl, Sprague’s pipit, Swainson’s hawk, trumpeter swan, upland sandpiper, western meadowlark, willet, Wilson’s phalarope, and whooping crane (migration).

Mammals: Big and little brown bats, long-eared bat, long-legged bat, northern long-eared bat, Townsend’s big-eared bat, western small-footed bat, black-footed ferret, black-tailed prairie dog, dwarf shrew, gray wolf, hispid pocket mouse, Merriam’s shrew, northwestern moose, sagebrush vole, silver-haired bat, and swift fox.

Amphibians/Reptiles: Common snapping turtle, Great Plains toad, false map turtle, greater short- horned lizard, milk snake, northern leopard frog, plains hognose snake, plains spadefoot, smooth green snake, and smooth softshell and spiny softshell turtle.

Fish and Mussels: Blue sucker, burbot, flathead chub, fragile papershell, northern redbelly dace, paddlefish, pallid sturgeon, pearl dace, pink papershell, shortnose gar, sickle-fin chub, sturgeon chub, and sauger.

Grassland Management for Wildlife in the MLRA

Management activities within the community phase pathways impact wildlife. Community phase, transitional, and restoration pathways are keys to long-term management within each state and between states. Significant inputs must occur to cross the threshold between states (e.g., State 3.0 to 2.0) requiring substantial economic inputs and management (mechanical, reseeding, prescribed burning, woody vegetation removal, grazing intensity, etc.). Timing, intensity, and frequency of these inputs can have dramatic positive or negative effects on local wildlife species. Ranchers and other land managers must always consider the long-term beneficial effects of management on the habitat in comparison to potential short-term negative effects to individuals.

Ecological sites occur as intermingled complexes on the landscape with gradual or sometimes abrupt transitions. Rarely do ecological sites exist in large enough acreage to manage independently.

Ecological sites that support a dominance of herbaceous vegetation (Loamy/Clayey) can be located adjacent to ecological sites that support medium to tall shrubs (Loamy Overflow). Conversely, ecological sites that are dominated by short- to mid-statured grasses (Claypan) can be adjacent to sites with bare soil only supporting minor amounts of short grasses and forbs (Thin Claypan).

Management of these complex ecological sites can provide a heterogeneous or a homogenous landscape. Grassland bird use declines as the plant community transitions to a homogenous state. Managers should recognize ecological sites and the complexes they occur in to properly manage the landscape. A management regime for one ecological site may negatively impact an adjacent site; for example, alteration of a grazing regime within a Loamy Overflow ecological site to encourage understory growth may encourage exotic cool-season grasses to increase or dominate an adjacent ecological site.

Life requisites and habitat deficiencies are determined for targeted species. Deficiencies must be addressed along community phase, transitional, and restoration pathways as presented in specific state-and-transition models. Ecological sites should be managed and restored within the site’s capabilities to provide sustainable habitat. Managers also should consider habitat provided by adjacent/intermingled ecological sites for species with home ranges or life requisites that cannot be provided by one ecological site.
With populations of many grassland-nesting birds in decline, it is important to maintain these ecological sites in a 1.0 Reference State (rarely found intact) or the 2.0 Native/Invaded. Plant communities optimal for a guild of grassland species serve as a population source where the birth rate exceeds mortality. Species may use marginal plant communities; however, these sites may function as a population sink where mortality exceeds the birth rate.

Understanding preferred vegetative stature and sensitivity to woody encroachment is necessary to manage for the specific grassland species. Various grass heights may be used for breeding, nesting, foraging, or winter habitat. While most species use varying heights, many have a preferred vegetative stature height. The following chart provides preferred vegetative stature heights and sensitivity to woody vegetation encroachment.

For more information:
https://efotg.sc.egov.usda.gov/references/public/ND/54_Sandy_Terrace_Narrative_FINAL_Ref_FSG.pdf

Sandy Terrace Wildlife Habitat Interpretation:

Sandy Terrace ecological sites are formed in coarse-loamy or sandy stream alluvium supporting a diverse mixture of cool-season and tall warm-season grasses, such as prairie sandreed and forbs. Associated ecological sites include Riparian Complex, Choppy Sands, Loamy Terrace, and Clayey Terrace, providing a generally unfragmented landscape along stream and river systems within the MLRA. The expansiveness of ecological sites supports diverse stature and high diversity of grasses and forbs for wildlife. The associated Riparian Complex provides travel corridors from many mammalian species, making Sandy Terrace sites quality forage areas for small and large herbivores.

Sandy Terrace habitat features and components support grassland-nesting birds, notably species that prefer medium to tall-vegetative stature and can tolerate woody vegetation. Sandy Terrace can have mature, dead, and/or dying Plains cottonwood in association with a variety of shrubs and a graminoid component composed largely of western wheatgrass and needlegrasses. Silver sage and western snowberry may become dominant shrub components. Insects rely on associated forbs and grasses for survival and serve as food sources for birds and their young.

Sandy Terrace ecological sites may be found in five plant community states (1.0 Reference State, 2.0 Native/Invaded State, 3.0 Invaded State, 4.0 Go-Back State, and 5.0 Conifer Invaded State) within a local landscape. Multiple plant community phases exist within States 1.0, 2.0, and 3.0. Today, these states occur primarily in response to grazing, drought, and non-use. Secondary influences include anthropogenic disturbances and fire.

Because there is no known restoration pathway from State 2.0 to State 1.0, it is important to intensively manage using tools in the State 1.0 and State 2.0 community phase pathways to prevent further plant community degradation along either the T2A transitional pathway to State 3.0 or the T2B transitional pathway to the 5.0 Invaded Woody State thresholds. Native wildlife generally benefits from a heterogeneous grasslands found in States 1.0 and 2.0 that include diverse grass and forb species with varying stature and density. As plant communities degrade within State 2.0, warm- season grasses (particularly short-statured grasses) and exotic cool-season grasses increase while native forbs are reduced. This transition results in reduced stature and increased plant community homogeneity. When adjacent/intermingled ecological sites undergo the same transition, the result can be an expansive, homogenous landscape.

Success along Restoration Pathway R3A from State 3.0 to State 2.0 is very difficult and is dependent upon the presence of a remnant native grass population. This concept also applies to wildlife as the target species must either be present on adjacent State 1.0 or State 2.0 plant communities or on ecological sites within the mobility limits of the species. Species with limited mobility, such as Dakota skippers, must exist near the plant community to utilize restored sites. Mobile species (such as grassland-nesting birds) can easily locate isolated, restored plant communities.

Plant community phases within State 3.0, show dramatic increased homogeneity of exotic cool- season grasses and further reduction in native forbs. Reduced forb diversity limits insect populations, negatively affecting grassland-nesting bird foraging opportunities. A homogenous grassland landscape does not provide quality escape or winter cover. As a result, many species are not able to meet life requisites within State 3.0.

Management along community phase, transition, or restoration pathways should focus upon attainable changes. Short- and long-term monetary costs must be evaluated against short- and long- term ecological services in creating and maintaining habitat of sufficient quality to support a sustainable population.

1.0 Reference State

Community Phase 1.1 Prairie Sandreed-Western Wheatgrass/Shrubs: This plant community offers quality wildlife habitat; every effort should be made to maintain this ecological site within this community phase. This phase retains high functionality through continued maintenance, including prescribed grazing with adequate recovery period as well as prescribed burning. Predominance of grass species in this community favors grazers and mixed-feeders (animals selecting grasses as well as forbs and shrubs). The structural diversity provides habitat for a wide array of migratory and resident birds.

Invertebrates: Insects play a role in maintaining the forb community and provide a forage base for grassland birds, reptiles, and rodents. Ecological services, historically provided by bison, are mirrored by domestic livestock. These services include putting plant material and dung in contact with mineral soil to be used by low trophic level consumers (such as invertebrate shredders, predators, herbivores, dung beetles, and fungal-feeders).

Dakota skippers may use this site due but the presence of host plants, such as little bluestem and prairie dropseed, are limited. Regal fritillary habitat is limited due to the rarity of Nuttall's violet and prairie violets. Monarch butterfly may use flowering forbs on this site; however, few milkweed species are found on this site to support breeding.
Bumblebees and other native bees utilize forbs as a nectar source and bare ground for nesting sites in bunchgrasses. Prescribed grazing with adequate recovery periods, as well as prescribed burning, to maintain the 1.1 phase has little effect on nests of ground-dwelling insects.

Birds: This plant community provides quality nesting, foraging, and escape habitats favored by mid- to tallgrass-nesting birds. Several species of grassland birds that prefer mid- to tall-grass stature may use this site. In years with reduced precipitation or drought, nesting recruitment may be compromised. This plant community provides suitable areas for sharp-tailed grouse nesting and brood-rearing habitat. Diverse prey populations provide good hunting opportunities for grassland raptors.

Mammals: This site’s proximity to the Riparian Complex ecological site provides a quality forage area for small and large herbivores. The diversity of grasses and forbs provide high nutrition levels for small and large herbivores including voles, mice, rodents, jackrabbits, pronghorn, and deer (white-tailed and mule). Moderate to tall statured vegetation provides suitable food, thermal, protective, and escape cover for small and larger herbivores.

Amphibians/Reptiles: This ecological site and associated plant communities provide habitat for smooth green snakes. This ecological site can provide habitat for the northern leopard frog and Great Plains toad dependent on distance to the Riparian Complex ecological site. Plain’s spadefoot utilizes small ephemeral ponds or associated stream for breeding as well as other habitats offered within this Sandy Terrace ecological site. This ecological site may provide habitat for the plains hog-nosed snake.

Fish and Mussels: This ecological site is directly associated with streams, rivers, or water bodies found in the Riparian Complex ecological site. Management on these interconnected sites will have direct effects on aquatic species.

Community Phase 1.2 Needle and Thread–Blue Grama-Prairie Sandreed/Shrubs: Long-term drought, with or without heavy grazing (via Plant Community Pathway 1.2A) changes the stature to one denominated by a mid- to tall-statured community to one dominated by mid- to short-statured vegetation.

Invertebrates: This phase provides similar life requisites as Community Phase 1.1. However, multiyear drought may negatively impact ground-nesting sites for bumblebees, other native bees, and other ground- nesting insects due to reduction of forbs, timing of forb flowering, or increased soil compaction.

Birds: This plant community provides nesting, foraging, and escape habitats favored by short- to mid- grass-nesting birds. Species that prefer a midgrass to tall-stature may be generally successful with normal to above-normal precipitation and a change in management along the 1.2A Community Phase Pathway. In years with reduced precipitation or heavy grazing, nesting recruitment may be compromised for midgrass-nesting species. Diverse prey populations provide good hunting opportunities for grassland raptors.

Mammals: Provides similar life requisites as Community Phase 1.1; however, the shorter stature may begin to provide habitat for the hispid pocket mouse.

Amphibians/Reptiles: Provides similar life requisites as Community Phase 1.1.

Fish and Mussels: Provides similar life requisites as Community Phase 1.1.

Community Phase 1.3 Plains Cottonwood-Shrubs/Western Wheatgrass: This plant community phase is characterized by mature, dead, and/or dying Plains cottonwood in association with a variety of shrubs and a graminoid component composed largely of western wheatgrass and needlegrasses.

Invertebrates: Dependent upon the amount of plains cottonwood remaining on the sites, this plant community may provide similar life requisites as Community Phase 1.1. Plains cottonwood does not provide a pollen or nectar source; however, the shrub component will provide early to mid-season pollen and nectar. Plant communities with a Plains cottonwood gallery provide limited pollen and nectar sources.

Birds: Plains cottonwood provides nesting and foraging sites for woodpeckers and other cavity nesting birds. Plains cottonwood also provides nesting and perch sites for raptors. Dependent upon the amount of Plains cottonwood remaining on the site, this plant community can provide life requisites for forest dependent species; edge sensitive grassland nesting birds avoid this plant community.

Mammals: This site provides similar life requisites as Community Phase 1.1. However, dependent on the density of Plains cottonwood and associated shrubs, this site could provide thermal, escape, winter cover for large ungulates.

Amphibians/Reptiles: Dependent on the density of Plains cottonwood, this plant community could provide similar life requisites as Community Phase 1.1. However, most amphibians and reptiles may discontinue use of this site when a Plains cottonwood gallery is present.
Fish and Mussels: Provides similar life requisites as Community Phase 1.1.

Community Phase 1.4 Annual Forbs/Bare Ground/Blue Grama (Prairie Dog Town): This plant community phase is characterized by long-term prairie dog occupation. Perennial forbs’ stature and abundance are replaced by short-statured annual forbs. Bare ground increases, litter amounts and infiltration rates decline, and soil surface temperatures increase. This short-statured plant community is resilient, retaining sufficient grazing-sensitive native species to return to the 1.2 community phases via Community Phase Pathway 1.4A (prairie dog abandonment).

Invertebrates: A switch to annual forbs from perennial forbs may not have a significant impact to invertebrates but may reduce season-long nectar-producing plants for pollinators. Season-long nectar sources may be found on adjacent plant communities or ecological sites for mobile species. Increased areas of bare ground provide increased nesting sites for bumble bees and other ground-nesting insects. Burrowing owls place dung around their burrow entrance, attracting dung beetles and other insects as a food source.

Birds: This short-statured phase, driven by long-term prairie dog occupation, is favored by burrowing owls, chestnut-collared longspur, and McCown’s longspur. Prairie dog towns provide abundant prey populations for grassland raptors. The lack of grass and forb stature limits use by many bird species preferring mid-statured vegetation. Burrowing owls nest in abandoned prairie dog burrows.

Mammals: Suitable food, thermal, protective, and escape cover (reduction in litter) for most mammals becomes limited. The loss of grass and forb diversity reduces nutrition levels for small and large herbivores including voles, mice, rodents, white-tailed jackrabbits, cottontail rabbits, and deer. Nonetheless, black-tailed prairie dog towns provide important habitat for many mammal species including small rodents. Grazers, such as pronghorn, use prairie dog towns for foraging and loafing.

Amphibians/Reptiles: Prairie dog towns provide habitat for both amphibians and reptiles. Tiger salamanders, prairie rattlesnakes, and other snake species will use the burrow systems of prairie dogs for shelter and denning.

Fish and Mussels: Provides similar life requisites as Community Phase 1.1.

2.0 Native/Invaded State

Community Phase 2.1 Prairie Sandreed-Western Wheatgrass/Shrubs: This plant community develops through Transition Pathway T1A, due the presence of exotic, cool-season grasses. The threshold between States 1.0 and 2.0 is crossed when Kentucky bluegrass, crested wheatgrass, Canada bluegrass, smooth brome, annual bromes, or other exotic species become established. This plant community phase has a very similar appearance and function to the Reference State of Community 1.1, except that it has a minor amount of cool-season exotic grasses and forbs. This phase functions at a high level for native wildlife; therefore, managers should consider the 2.0 Community Phase Pathways to avoid transitioning to State 3.0.

Invertebrates: Provides similar life requisites as Community Phase 1.1.

Birds: Provides similar life requisites as Community Phase 1.1.

Mammals: Provides similar life requisites as Community Phase 1.1.

Amphibians/Reptiles: Provides similar life requisites as Community Phase 1.1.

Fish and Mussels: Provides similar life requisites as Community Phase 1.1.

Community Phase 2.2 Needle and Thread-Blue Grama-Prairie Sandreed/Shrubs: Heavy continuous grazing (with or without drought) along Community Phase Pathway 2.1A leads to shorter-statured grasses, such as blue grama, with an increase in needle and thread and corresponding decreases in prairie sandreed and western wheatgrass.

Invertebrates: Provides similar life requisites as Community Phase 1.1; however, heavy continuous grazing reduces diversity of forbs limiting season-long nectar availability.

Birds: Heavy continuous grazing reduces nesting sites, forage (invertebrates), and cover. The stature is generally shorter, serving both mid- and shortgrass-nesting birds. Shortgrass-nesting birds favor this phase during periods of heavy grazing or drought. Species that prefer a midgrass stature may be generally successful with normal to above-normal precipitation and a change in management along the 2.2A Community Phase Pathway. In years with reduced precipitation or heavy grazing during the nesting season, nesting recruitment may be compromised for midgrass-nesting species. Diverse prey populations provide good hunting opportunities for grassland raptors.

Mammals: Provides similar life requisites as Community Phase 1.1. However, heavy continuous grazing reduces suitable food, thermal, protective, and escape cover (reduction in litter) for most mammals.

Amphibians/Reptiles: Provides similar life requisites as Community Phase 1.1.

Fish and Mussels: Provides similar life requisites as Community Phase 1.1.

Community Phase 2.3 Western Wheatgrass/Exotic Cool-Season Grasses/Shrubs: Community Phase Pathway 2.2B is characterized by complete rest or light utilization (less than 20 percent) grazing and elimination of fire when exotic cool-season grasses are present as in Community Phase 2.2. Plant community diversity is reduced with a decline of deeper-rooted native species; these are replaced by shallow-rooted exotic cool-season grasses. This plant community is on the cusp of crossing the threshold to the 3.0 Invaded State. Prescribed grazing with adequate recovery periods between grazing may shift the competitive edge to native species along Community Phase Pathway 2.3A; this is the most effective method to regain diverse cool-season grass and forb components in Community Phase 2.1. Every effort should be used to manage within Community Phase Pathway 2.3A to avoid crossing the threshold into State 3.0. Restoration Pathway R3A requires intensive management and economic inputs to successfully cross back to State 2.0.

Insects: Provides similar life requisites as Community Phase 2.2. However, the reduction of native forbs and increase in sod-forming grasses limit foraging and nesting sites for all pollinators. Homogeneity of forb species may limit season-long nectar availability. Litter build-up, resulting from complete rest or light utilization, may reduce ground-nesting site availability.

Birds: An increase in cool-exotic cool-season grasses moves this plant community towards homogeneity. Native grasses are still present in the plant community; however, the increase in cool-season exotic grasses reduces plant structure. With reduced amounts of native grasses and forbs, reduced plant stature, and increased litter, bird species shift from mid- to short-grass species. Sharp-tailed grouse may still use this plant community for leks and brood rearing; however, winter cover must be provided by adjacent ecological sites or plant communities. Management for bird species that prefer mid- to tall- statured grasses should follow Community Phase Pathway 2.3A.

Mammals: Provides similar life requisites as Community Phase 2.2.

Amphibians/Reptiles: Provides similar life requisites as Community Phase 1.1.

Fish and Mussels: Provides similar life requisites as Community Phase 1.1.

Community Phase 2.4 Plains Cottonwood/Shrubs/Western Wheatgrass: This plant community phase is characterized by mature, dead, and/or dying Plains cottonwood in association with a variety of shrubs and a graminoid component dominated by native species with exotic species invading the site.

Invertebrates: Dependent upon the amount of Plains cottonwood remaining on the sites, this plant community may provide similar life requisites as Community Phase 1.1. Plains cottonwood does not provide a pollen or nectar source; however, the shrub component will provide early to mid-season pollen and nectar.

Birds: Plains cottonwood provides nesting and foraging sites for woodpeckers and other cavity nesting birds. Plains cottonwood also provides nesting and perch sites for raptors. Dependent upon the amount of Plains cottonwood remaining on the site, this plant community can provide life requisites for forest dependent species; edge sensitive grassland nesting birds avoid this plant community.

Mammals: This site provides similar life requisites as Community Phase 1.1. However, dependent on the density of Plains cottonwood and associated shrubs, this site could provide thermal, escape, winter cover for large ungulates.

Amphibians/Reptiles: Dependent on the density of Plains cottonwood, this plant community could provide similar life requisites as Community Phase 1.1. However, most amphibians and reptiles may discontinue use of this site when a Plains cottonwood gallery is present.

Fish and Mussels: Provides similar life requisites as Community Phase 1.1.

Community Phase 2.5 Annual Forbs/Bare Ground/Blue Grama (Prairie Dog Town): This plant community is a result of ecological services provided by long-term black-tailed prairie dog occupation coupled with the introduction of exotic cool-season grasses and annual forbs along Community Phase Pathways 2.3B. Black-tailed prairie dogs provide primary ecological services to transition to and maintain Plant Community Phase 2.5. Utilizing one or more tools in Community Phase Pathway 2.5A (e.g., removal of black-tailed prairie dogs, control of exotic perennial forbs, implementation of prescribed grazing) can move this community back to Phase 2.3, but this may require significant management and economic inputs.

Invertebrates: The loss of native forb diversity limits use by all pollinators. However, invasive forbs may provide limited seasonal use dependent on bloom period. Bare ground, burrows, and short plant stature provide nest sites for bumblebees and other ground-nesting insects. Burrowing owls place dung around their burrow entrance, attracting dung beetles and other insects, as a food source.

Birds: Burrowing owl and McCown’s longspur rely on the stature and composition that this plant community provides. Presence of black-tailed prairie dogs provided diverse prey populations for grassland raptors, including burrowing owls, prairie falcons, and ferruginous hawks. Burrowing owls nest in abandoned prairie dog burrows.

Mammals: Suitable food, thermal, protective, and escape cover (reduction in litter) for most mammals becomes limited. The loss of grass and forb diversity reduces nutrition levels for small and large herbivores including voles, mice, rodents, white-tailed jackrabbits, cottontail rabbits, and deer. Except for black-tailed prairie dog, this plant community provides little habitat for mid-sized or small herbivores.
Nonetheless, black-tailed prairie dog towns provide important habitat for many mammal species, including small rodents. Grazers, such as pronghorn, use prairie dog towns for foraging and loafing.

Amphibians/Reptiles: Prairie dog towns provide habitat for both amphibians and reptiles. Tiger salamanders, prairie rattlesnakes, and other snake species will use the burrow systems of prairie dogs for shelter and denning.

Fish and Mussels: Provides similar life requisites as Community Phase 1.1.

3.0 Invaded State

Community Phase 3.1 Exotic Cool-Season Grasses/Shrubs: Community Phase Pathway T2B is characterized by a dominance (more than 30 percent) to a complete dominance of exotic cool-season grasses (such as Kentucky bluegrass, crested wheatgrass, smooth bromegrass, Canada bluegrass, and/or annual bromes). Silver sagebrush, western snowberry, and rose become dominant shrubs and tend to increase in density and cover. Restoration Pathway R3A requires remnant amounts of native warm-season grasses (i.e., blue grama, prairie sandreed), cool-season grasses (i.e., needlegrasses, western wheatgrass), and forbs. These remnant populations can only be expressed through frequent prescribed burns and high levels of prescribed grazing management targeting the exotic cool-season grasses. Intensified management along the R3A pathway will have significant short-term negative impacts on wildlife habitat; however, this is necessary to restore long-term native habitat functions.

Exotic cool-season grasses that result from non-use or low intensity (less than 20 percent utilization) grazing limits use by beneficial insects provided in States 1.0 and 2.0. Increased litter and lack of grazing leads to limited contact between plant material and mineral soil; this results in a cooler micro-climate which is unfavorable to most insects. Lack of bare soil limits ground-nesting sites for native bees and other ground-nesting insects. The lack of nectar-producing plants limits forage opportunities for bumblebees, regal fritillary, monarch butterfly, and other pollinating species. However, western snowberry-dominated sites or a mosaic with exotic cool-season grasses provide forage opportunities for bumblebees, regal fritillary, monarch butterfly, and other pollinating species.

Birds: The homogeneous community phase, dominated by exotic plant species, provides limited habitat and life requisites for most obligate grassland-nesting birds. Lack of stature and plant diversity, along with increased litter and the tendency of Kentucky bluegrass and smooth brome to lay down, limits use by many grassland-nesting birds. Litter accumulations reduce use by chestnut-collared and McCown’s longspurs. Burrowing owls may use the site if sufficient burrows of black-tailed prairie dogs or other burrowing mammals exist and if western snowberry is not present. Sharp-tailed grouse leks can be found on this plant community dominated by exotic cool-season plants; however, winter cover must be provided by adjacent ecological sites or plant communities.

Western snowberry dominated sites provide nesting, brood, and winter cover for sharp-tailed grouse. Western snowberry will provide habitat for grassland-nesting bird species that use woody vegetation or can tolerate a small amount of woody vegetation within areas dominated by grassland habitat.

Mammals: Black-tailed prairie dog expansion is possible in this plant community phase except where it is dominated by western snowberry. This community phase provides foraging habitat for pronghorn and deer. Litter accumulation and shrub cover favors thermal, protective, and escape cover for small rodents. However, reduced availability of native grass seed may reduce food availability for species such as the hispid pocket mouse.

Amphibians/Reptiles: Provides similar life requisites as Community Phase 1.1.

Fish and Mussels: Provides similar life requisites as Community Phase 1.1.

Community Phase 3.2: Deciduous Trees/Exotic Cool-Season Grasses/Shrubs: This plant community is like Community phase 2.4, characterized by mature, dead, and/or dying Plains cottonwood along with other trees such as green ash and boxelder in association with a variety of shrubs but with a graminoid understory component composed largely of exotic invasive species.

Invertebrates: Dependent upon the number of deciduous trees remaining on the sites, this plant community may provide similar life requisites as Community Phase 2.5. This deciduous tree plant community does not provide a pollen or nectar source; however, the shrub component may provide early to early- to mid-season pollen and nectar. An understory dominated by exotic cool-season grasses limits forb production, reducing pollen and nectar sources.

Birds: Plains cottonwood and other deciduous provides nesting and foraging sites for woodpeckers and other cavity nesting birds. Deciduous trees provide nesting and perch sites for raptors. Dependent upon the number of deciduous trees remaining on the site, this plant community can provide life requisites for forest dependent species; edge sensitive grassland nesting birds avoid this plant community.

Mammals: This site provides similar life requisites as Community Phase 2.5. However, dependent on the density of deciduous trees and associated shrubs (along with exotic cool-season grasses), this site could provide thermal, escape, winter cover for large ungulates. Exotic cool-season grasses provide thermal, escape, winter cover for small mammals.

Amphibians/Reptiles: Dependent on the density of deciduous trees, this plant community could provide similar life requisites as Community Phase 2.5. However, most amphibians and reptiles may discontinue use of this site when a dense deciduous tree gallery is present.

Fish and Mussels: Provides similar life requisites as Community Phase 1.1.

4.0 Go-Back State

Community Phase 4.1 Annual/Pioneer Perennial/Exotics: These plant communities are the result of severe soil disturbance (such as cropping, recreational activity, or concentrated livestock activity for a prolonged period). Following cessation of disturbances, the resulting plant community is dominated by early pioneer annual and perennial plant species. Plant species composition and production are highly variable. Weedy plants can provide pollinator habitat along with spring and summer cover for many mammals and birds, and their young. Dense weed cover can keep soils moist, increasing insect presence. Tall stature provided by some weeds may offer thermal cover and seeds throughout winter.

Successful restoration of native species along Transition Pathway R4A results in a native grass and forb community in State 2.0. Failed restoration to native species through Restoration Pathway R4B results in Invaded State 3.0. Wildlife species response will be dependent upon plant community composition, vegetative stature, patch size, and management activities (such as prescribed grazing, burning, interseeding, haying, or noxious weed control).

5.0 Invaded Wooded State

Community Phase 5.1 Deciduous Trees/Shrubs/Exotic Cool-Season Grasses: Resulting from Pathways T2B and T3A, elimination of fire is the major contributor to this community phase crossing the threshold from an herbaceous plant community to a community almost entirely dominated by deciduous shrubs and trees. Sandy Terrace sites historically supported a wooded plant community.

Invertebrates: The majority of the nectar and pollen resources are provided by flowering shrubs limiting season long pollen availability.

Birds: Light infestation may continue to support some grassland and open-area species tolerant of woody invasion (e.g., lark sparrow, vesper sparrow). Bird species which are intolerant of woody vegetation are eliminated. Species associated with woodlands and woodland edges will increase. The presence of woody plant species may increase predation by mammals and avian predators and brood parasitism by brown-headed cowbirds. Nearly all grassland-nesting bird species are negatively affected by Community Phase 5.1.

Mammals: Bat species found in MLRA 54 use Community Phase 5.1 for roost sites if mature trees are available. Nearby community phases supporting insects provide foraging opportunities. This phase can provide significant thermal, escape, and loafing habitat for elk and deer.

Amphibians/Reptiles: Dense stands of woody vegetation may reduce or eliminate life for amphibians and reptiles.

Fish and Mussels: Provides similar life requisites as Community Phase 1.1.

Animal Community – Grazing Interpretations

This site is well adapted to managed grazing by domestic livestock. The predominance of herbaceous plants across all plant community phases best lends these sites to grazing by cattle, but other domestic grazers with differing diet preferences may also be a consideration depending upon management objectives. Often, the current plant community does not match any particular plant community (as described in the ecological site description). Because of this, a resource inventory is necessary to document plant composition and production. Proper interpretation of this inventory data will permit the establishment of a safe, initial stocking rate for the type and class of animals and level of grazing management. More accurate stocking rate estimates should eventually be calculated using actual stocking rate information and monitoring data.

NRCS defines prescribed grazing as “managing the harvest of vegetation with grazing and/or browsing animals with the intent to achieve specific ecological, economic, and management objectives”. As used in this site description, the term ‘prescribed grazing’ is intended to include multiple grazing management systems (e.g., rotational grazing, twice-over grazing, conservation grazing, targeted grazing, etc.) provided that, whatever management system is implemented, it meets the intent of prescribed grazing definition.

The basic grazing prescription addresses balancing forage demand (quality and quantity) with available forage, varying grazing and deferment periods from year-to-year, matching recovery/deferment periods to growing conditions when pastures are grazed more than once in a growing season, implementation of a contingency (e.g., drought) plan, and a monitoring plan. When the management goal is to facilitate change from one plant community phase or state to another, then the prescription needs to be designed to shift the competitive advantage to favor the native grass and forb species.

Grazing levels are noted within the plant community narratives and pathways in reference to grazing/prescribed grazing management. “Degree of utilization” is defined as the proportion of the current years forage production that is consumed and/or destroyed by grazing animals (may refer to a single plant species or a portion or all the vegetation). “Grazing utilization” is classified as slight, moderate, full, close, and severe (see the following table for description of each grazing use category). The following utilization levels are also described in the Ranchers Guide to Grassland Management IV. Utilization levels are determined by using the landscape appearance method as outlined in the Interagency Technical Reference “Utilization Studies and Residual Measurements” 1734-3.

Utilization Level % Use Description
Slight (Light) 0-20 Appears practically undisturbed when viewed obliquely. Only choice areas and forage utilized.

Moderate 20-40 Almost all of accessible range shows grazing. Little or no use of poor forage. Little evidence of trailing to grazing.

Full 40-60 All fully accessible areas are grazed. The major sites have key forage species properly utilized (about half taken, half left). Points of concentration with overuse limited to 5 to 10 percent of accessible area.

Close (Heavy) 60-80 All accessible range plainly shows use and major sections closely cropped. Livestock forced to use less desirable forage, considering seasonal preference.

Severe > 80 Key forage species completely used. Low-value forages are dominant.

Hydrological functions

Water is the principal factor limiting herbage production on this site. The site is dominated by soils in hydrologic group A; however, a few soils in group B are included. Infiltration varies from moderately rapid to rapid and runoff potential varies from negligible to low depending on surface texture, soil stratification, and ground cover. In many cases, areas with greater than 75% ground cover have the greatest potential for high infiltration and lower runoff. An exception would be where short grasses form a dense sod and dominate the site. Areas where ground cover is less than 50% have the greatest potential to have reduced infiltration and higher runoff (refer to Section 4, NRCS National Engineering Handbook for runoff quantities and hydrologic curves).

Recreational uses

The largest acreage of public land available for recreation in the MLRA is owned and managed by the United States Forest Service (USFS) within the Little Missouri, Grand River, and Cedar River National Grasslands in South Dakota and the Little Missouri National Grasslands in North Dakota (687,398 acres). These areas are available for hunting, fishing, hiking, camping, horse and bike riding, nature viewing, etc. In addition, the Bureau of Land Management (BLM) manages (40,264 acres) in North and South Dakota with the same recreational opportunities as the USFS lands.

The United States Army Corps of Engineers (USAE) owns 496,162 acres of land and water located on and adjacent to Lake Sakakawea and Lake Oahe. The North Dakota and South Dakota Game and Fish Departments manage the fisheries resources. These two Missouri River reservoirs provide excellent fishing and water recreation opportunities. In addition, the United States Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) manages a national fish hatchery below Garrison Dam.

The USFWS manages 36,858 acres in the National Wildlife Refuge system while the North Dakota and South Dakota wildlife management agencies manage 72,218 acres as wildlife or game management areas. The North Dakota, South Dakota, and Montana Department of Trust Lands manage 486,482 acres. These areas provide hunting, bird watching, hiking, and other outdoor recreation opportunities. North Dakota Wildlife Management Areas along the shoreline of Lake Sakakawea and the Missouri River account for 60,000 acres of the approximately 72,218 acres of land managed by the states for wildlife habitat in MLRA 54. Located in the northern portion of the MLRA, the Killdeer Mountain WMA is the largest tract of state-owned land managed for wildlife habitat at approximately 7,000 acres.

The largest refuge managed by the United States Fish and Wildlife service is Lake Ilo National Wildlife Refuge totaling approximately 4,000 acres. United States Bureau of Reclamation manages approximately 11,000 acres at Lake Tschida and 8,460 acres at Bowman-Haley Lake for fish and wildlife habitat. The National Park Service manages the Knife River Indian Village National Historic Site; the North Dakota Historical Society manages the Double Ditch Indian Village site.

Bird watching: Public and private grasslands within MLRA 54 provide essential habitat for prairie-dependent bird species such as Sprague's pipits, western meadowlark, and Baird's sparrow along with some of the larger, showy members of the upland prairie include marbled godwits, upland sandpipers, willets, and sharp-tailed grouse. Publicly owned lands provide excellent birding opportunities. MLRA 54 is in the Central Flyway.

Hunting/Fishing: MLRA 54 is a fall destination for thousands of pheasant and upland game bird hunters. This MLRA also provides excellent deer (white-tailed and mule), pronghorn, and coyote hunting opportunities. Lake Sakakawea, Lake Oahe, Lake Tschida, and the Missouri River provide excellent year-round fishing opportunities. The North Dakota Game and Fish Department and South Dakota Game, Fish and Parks manage approximately 40 fishing lakes within the MLRA. Available species include yellow perch, walleye, northern pike, muskellunge, crappie, bluegill, rainbow trout, and smallmouth bass. Chinook salmon are stocked in Lake Sakakawea.

Camping: Numerous state operated campgrounds are located along the shores of Lake Sakakawea, Lake Oahe, Missouri River, and Shadehill Reservoir. Primitive camping is allowed on Grand River and Cedar River National Grasslands in South Dakota and the Little Missouri National Grasslands in North Dakota. Other numerous camping (primitive and improved) sites are available in numerous city and county parks.

Hiking/Biking/Horseback Riding: Hiking is permitted on most state and federally owned lands. Developed hiking and biking trails can be found on Harmon Lake (13.1 miles), Roughrider Trail (Morton County, 16.5 miles), Missouri River State Natural Area (5 miles), Ft. Abraham Lincoln State Park (8 miles), Cross Ranch State Park (14 miles), Grand River National Grasslands (7 miles), Lake Sakakawea State Park (5 miles), and Lewis & Clark State Park (5 miles). In addition, extensive biking and walking trails are found in local county and city parks. Ft. Abraham Lincoln State Park has 6 miles of horseback trails.

Wood products

No appreciable wood products are present on the site.

Other products

Seed harvest of native plant species can provide additional income on this site.

Other information

Site Development and Testing Plan
• NASIS currently is populated with a water table depth of 42 inches. This should be reviewed as it may be shallower (36 or 30 inches) in the spring months. A comparison should be made with Loamy Terrace water table depths. Some field investigation to verify is recommended.
• There are approximately 17,000 acres of somewhat poorly drained terrace soils (series taxadjuncts) of varying textures in MLRA 54. These soils occur in Burleigh, Emmons, McKenzie, Morton, Oliver, and Williams counties. The high ground water table in these soils is directly affected by the water levels of two major Missouri River reservoirs (Lake Oahe and Lake Sakakawea). Future investigation is recommended in these areas to determine their appropriate ecological site(s). They will be linked to Loamy Terrace, Sandy Terrace, or Clayey Terrace until field investigations can be conducted.
• NASIS revisions needed:
o Saline phases of Trembles are currently linked to the Saline Lowland ecological site in NASIS. These soils are moderately well drained or well drained but become different ecological sites once salinized. Seep development due to cultivation of adjacent uplands caused the salinization. Range planting considerations need to include factors other than the presence of accumulated salts (recharge area, etc.). Relinking of these components is needed.
o Two minor channeled, frequently flooded components of Banks need to be relinked from Loamy Overflow to Sandy Terrace or Riparian Complex.
o One minor, occasionally flooded Trembles component needs to be relinked from Loamy Overflow to Sandy Terrace.
o One minor Banks component needs to be relinked from Sands to Sandy Terrace.
o One Banks, somewhat poorly drained component should be relinked from Sandy Terrace to 53B Subirrigated.
o Frequently flooded, Trembles (moderately well or well drained) need to be relinked from Loamy Overflow to Riparian Complex or Sandy Terrace.

This ESD is the best available knowledge. The site concept and species composition table have been used in the field and tested for more than five years. It is expected that as additional information becomes available revisions may be required.

Inventory data references

Information presented here has been derived from NRCS and other federal/state agency clipping and inventory data. Also, field knowledge of range-trained personnel was used. All descriptions were peer reviewed and/or field-tested by various private, state, and federal agency specialists.

Other references

Bakker, K.K. 2003. The effect of woody vegetation on grassland nesting birds: an annotated bibliography. The Proceedings of the South Dakota Academy of Science 82:119-141.

Barker, W.T. and W. C. Whitman. 1988. Vegetation of the Northern Great Plains. Rangelands 10(6): 266-272.

Bjugstad, A.J. 1965. Vegetation measurements in relation to range condition classification on the principal range sites of southwestern North Dakota. PhD Thesis. N D State University.

Bluemle, J.P. 2017. North Dakota Notes No. 13, North Dakota’s mountainous areas: the Killdeer Mountains and the Turtle Mountains. Accessed on web, April 10, 2017, at https://www.dmr.nd.gov/ndgs/ndnotes/ndn15- h.htm.

Bluemle. J.P. 2016. North Dakota’s geologic legacy. North Dakota State University Press. 382 pages.

Brand, M. D. and H. Goetz. 1986. Vegetation of exclosures in southwestern North Dakota. Journal of Range Management 39: 434-437.

Briske, D.D. (editor). 2017. Rangeland systems – processes, management, and challenges. Springer Series on Environmental Management. 661 pages.

DeKeyser, E.S., G. Clambey, K. Krabbenhoft, and J. Ostendorf. 2009. Are changes in species composition on central North Dakota rangelands due to non-use management? Rangelands 31:16-19

Dodd, J.L. 1970. Distribution and community site relations of bluebunch wheatgrass in North Dakota. PhD Thesis. N D State University. Fargo, North Dakota.

Dornbusch, M.J., R.F. Limb, and C.K. Gasch. 2018. Facilitation of an exotic grass through nitrogen enrichment by an exotic legume. Rangeland Ecology & Management 71:691-694.

Dyke, S.R., S.K. Johnson, and P.T. Isakson. 2015. North Dakota state wildlife action plan. North Dakota Game and Fish Department, Bismarck, ND. 468 pages.

Ehrenfeld, Joan G. 2002. Effects of exotic plant invasions on soil nutrient cycling processes. Ecosystems 6:503-523.

Ereth, C., J. Hendrickson, D. Kirby, E. DeKeyser, K. Sedevic, and M. West. Controlling Kentucky bluegrass with herbicide and burning is influenced by invasion level. Invasive Plant Science and Management 10: 80-89.

Flesland, J.R. 1964. Composition and structure of the salt-desert shrub type in the badlands of western North Dakota. M.S. Thesis. ND State University.

Franzen, David. 2007. Managing saline soils in North Dakota. SF-1087. NDSU Extension Service. North Dakota State University.
Gilgert, W. and S. Zack. 2010. Integrating multiple ecosystem services into ecological site descriptions. Rangelands: 32:49-54.

Grant, T.A. and R.K. Murphy. 2005. Changes on woodland cover on prairie refuges in North Dakota, USA. Natural Areas Journal 25:359-368.

Hanson, H.C and W. Whitman. 1938. Characteristics of major grassland types in western North Dakota. Ecological Monographs. Vol. 8:57-114.

Heitschmidt, R. K., K. D. Klement, and M. R. Haferkamp. 2005. Interactive effects of drought and grazing on Northern Great Plains rangelands. Rangeland Ecology and Management 58:11-19.

Hendrickson, J.R., P. S. Johnson, M. A. Liebig, K. K. Sedivec, and G. A. Halvorson. 2016. Use of ecological sites in managing wildlife and livestock: an example with prairie dogs. Rangelands 38(1): 23-28.

Hendrickson, J.R., S.L. Kronberg, and E.J. Scholljegerdes. 2020. Can targeted grazing reduce abundance of invasive perennial grass (Kentucky bluegrass) on native mixed-grass prairie? Rangeland Ecology and Management, 73:547-551.

Higgins, K.F. 1984. Lightning fires in grasslands in North Dakota and in pine-savanna lands in nearby South Dakota and Montana. J. Range Manage. 37:100-103.

Higgins, K.F. 1986. Interpretation and compendium of historical fire accounts in the Northern Great Plains. United States Department of Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service. Resource Publication 161. 39 pages.

High Plains Regional Climate Center, University of Nebraska, 830728 Chase Hall, Lincoln, NE 68583-0728. (http://hprcc.unl.edu)

Hirch, K.L. 1985. Habitat type classification of grasslands and shrublands of southwestern North Dakota. Ph.D. Thesis. ND State University.

Hopkins, D.G., M.D Sweeny, D.R. Kirby, J. L. Richardson. 1991. Effects of revegetation of surficial soil salinity on panspot soils. Journal of Range Management 44(3): 215-219.

Hopkins, D.G., M.D Sweeny, J. L. Richardson. 1991. Dispersive erosion and entisol-panspot genesis in sodium-affected landscapes. Soil Science Society American Journal Volume. 55: 171-177.

Johnson, Sandra. 2015. Reptiles and amphibians of North Dakota. North Dakota Game and Fish Department. 64 pages.

Jordan, N. R., D.L. Larson, and S.C. Huerd. 2008. Soil modification by invasive plants: effects on native and invasive species of mixed-grass prairies. Biological Invasions 10:177-190.

Mader, E., M. Shepherd, M. Vaughan, and S.H. Black. 2011. Attracting native pollinators: protecting North America's bees and butterflies. Accessed at https://xerces.org, May 1, 2017.

Montana Fish, Wildlife and Parks. 2015. Montana state wildlife action plan. 2015. Viewed at https://xerces.org/ on May 1, 2017.

North Dakota Division of Tourism, Accessed on February 25, 2019. Available at https://www.ndtourism.com/sports-recreation

North Dakota Parks and Recreation Department, Accessed on February 25, 2019. Available at http://www.parkrec.nd.gov/recreationareas/recreationareas.html

Palit, R., G. and E.S. DeKeyser. 2022. Impacts and drivers of smooth brome (Bromus inermis Leyes.) invasion in native ecosystems. Plants: 10,3390. http://https://www.mdpi.com/2223-7747/11/10/1340

Palit, R., G. Gramig, and E.S. DeKeyser. 2021. Kentucky bluegrass invasion in the Northern Great Plains and prospective management approaches to mitigate its spread. Plants: 10,817. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants10040817

Printz, J.L. and J.R. Hendrickson. 2015. Impacts of Kentucky bluegrass invasion (Poa pratensis) on ecological processes in the Northern Great Plains. Rangelands 37(6):226-232.

Redmann, Robert E. 1975. Production ecology of grassland plant communities in western North Dakota. Ecological Monographs 45:83-106.

Reeves, J.L., J.D. Derner, M.A. Sanderson, J.R. Hendrickson, S.L. Kronberg, M.K. Petersen, and L.T. Vermeire. 2014. Seasonal weather influences on yearling beef steer production in C3-dominated Northern Great Plains rangeland. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 183:110-117.

Royer, R. A., 2003. Butterflies of North Dakota: an atlas and guide. Minot State University, Minot, ND.

Sanford, R.C. 1970. Skunk bush in the North Dakota badlands: ecology, phytosociology, browse production, and utilization. Ph. D. Thesis. ND State University.

Seabloom, R. 2020. Mammals of North Dakota. North Dakota Institute for Regional Studies, Fargo, ND. 470 pages.

Sedivec, K.D., J.L. Printz. 2014. Ranchers guide to grassland management IV. NDSU Extension Service publication R1707.

South Dakota Dept. of Game, Fish and Parks. 2014. South Dakota wildlife action plan. Wildlife Division Report 2014-03.

Spaeth, K.E., Hayek, M.A., Toledo, D., and Hendrickson, J. 2019. Cool season grass impacts on native mixedgrass prairie species in the Northern Great Plains. America’s Grassland Conference: Working Across Boundaries. The Fifth Biennial Conference on the Conservation of America’s Grasslands. Bismarck, ND. 20-22 August.

Tidwell, D., D.T. Fogarty, and J.R. Weir. 2021. Woody encroachment in grasslands, a guide for understanding risk and vulnerability. Oklahoma State University, Oklahoma Cooperative Extension Service publication E- 1054. 32 pages.

Toledo, D., M. Sanderson, K. Spaeth, J. Hendrickson, and J. Printz. 2014. Extent of Kentucky bluegrass and its effect on native plant species diversity and ecosystem services in the Northern Great Plains of the United State. Invasive Plant Science and Management 7(4): 543-552.

USDA, NRCS. 2021. National range and pasture handbook, (https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detailfull/national/landuse/rangepasture/?cid=stelprdb1043084)

USDA, NRCS. 2006. Land resource regions and major land resource areas of the United States, the Caribbean, and the Pacific Basin. U.S. Department of Agriculture Handbook 296.

USDA, NRCS. National Soil Information System, 100 Centennial Mall North, Room 152, Lincoln, NE 68508- 3866. (https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detail/soils/survey/tools/?cid=nrcs142p2_053552)

USDA, NRCS. National Water & Climate Center, 1201 NE Lloyd Blvd, Suite 802, Portland, OR 97232-1274. (https://www.wcc.nrcs.usda.gov/)

USDA, NRCS. 2001. The PLANTS database, Version 3.1 (http://plants.usda.gov). National Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, LA 70874-4490 USA.

USDA, NRCS, Various published soil surveys.

USDI BLM.1999. Utilization studies and residual measurements. Interagency Technical Reference 1734-3.

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 2015. Endangered and threatened wildlife and plants; designation of critical habitat for the Dakota skipper and Poweshiek skipperling; Vol. 79 No. Final Rule October 1, 2015, 50 CFR Part 17.

Vinton, M.A. and E.M. Goergen. 2006. Plant-soil feedbacks contribute to the persistence of Bromus inermis in tallgrass prairie. Ecosystems 9: 967-976.

Whitman, W.H., H. Hanson, and R. Peterson. 1943. Relation of drought and grazing to North Dakota range lands. North Dakota Agricultural Experimentation Bulletin 340.

Zaczkowski, N. K. 1972. Vascular flora of Billings, Bowman, Golden Valley, and Slope counties, North Dakota. Dissertation, ND State University.

Zimmerman, G. M. 1981. Effects of fire upon selected plant communities in the little Missouri badlands. Thesis, ND State University.

Contributors

ND NRCS: David Dewald, Jonathan Fettig, Jody Forman, Mike Gerbig, Alan Gulsvig, Mark Hayek, Jeanne Heilig, John Kempenich, Chuck Lura, Jeff Printz, Steve Sieler, and Hal Weiser.

Approval

Suzanne Mayne-Kinney, 3/31/2025

Acknowledgments

NRCS would like to acknowledge the United State Forest Service (USFS) and National Park Service (NPS) for access to USFS properties and technical assistance in ESD development. USFS: Jack Dahl, Nickole Dahl, and Chad Prosser.