Physiographic features

This site occurs on hillslopes and ridges on sedimentary plains (some areas are capped with thin deposits of remnant glacial till or with silty loess). The parent material is weathered residuum (sandstone). Slopes range from 3 to 70 percent.

Table 2. Representative physiographic features

Climatic features

MLRA 54 is considered to have a continental climate with cold winters and hot summers, low humidity, light rainfall, and much sunshine. Extremes in temperature are common and characteristic of MLRA 54. The continental climate is the result of this MLRA’s location in the geographic center of North America. There are few natural barriers on the northern Great Plains, so air masses move unobstructed across the plains and account for rapid changes in temperature.

Annual precipitation ranges from 14 to 18 inches per year. The normal average annual temperature is about 42° F. January is the coldest month with average temperatures ranging from about 13° F (Beach, ND) to about 16° F (Bison, SD). July is the warmest month with temperatures averaging from about 69° F (Beach, ND) to about 72° F (Timber Lake, SD). The range of normal average monthly temperatures between the coldest and warmest months is about 57° F. This large temperature range attests to the continental nature of MLRA 54’s climate. Wind speeds average about 11 miles per hour, ranging from about 13 miles per hour during the spring to about 10 miles per hour during the summer. Daytime wind speeds are generally stronger than nighttime wind speeds, and occasional strong storms may bring brief periods of high winds with gusts to more than 50 miles per hour.

Growth of native cool-season plants begins in late March and continues through early to mid-July. Native warm-season plants begin growth in mid-May and continue to the end of August. Greening-up of cool-season plants can occur again in September and October when adequate soil moisture is present.

Table 3. Representative climatic features

Climate stations used

• (1) FT YATES 4 SW [USC00323207], Fort Yates, ND

• (2) HETTINGER [USC00324178], Hettinger, ND

• (3) DUPREE [USC00392429], Dupree, SD

• (4) WATFORD CITY [USC00329233], Watford City, ND

• (5) MANDAN EXP STN [USC00325479], Mandan, ND

• (6) LUDLOW 3 SSE [USC00395048], Ludlow, SD

• (7) HEBRON [USC00324102], Hebron, ND

Influencing water features

This site does not receive additional water as runoff from adjacent slopes; it is on a run-off landscape position. Neither does it receive significant additional water from a seasonal high-water table. Depth to the water table typically exceeds 6 feet throughout the growing season. Surface infiltration is moderately rapid or rapid. Permeability above the sandstone is rapid or very rapid. Water loss is through evapotranspiration and percolation below the root zone.

Soil features

Soils associated with Shallow Sandy ES are in the Entisols order and are classified further as Typic Ustorthents and Typic Ustipsamments. These soils formed in weathered residuum (sandstone). They are well drained to somewhat excessively drained. The common features of soils in this site are a coarse or moderately coarse texture (either does not form a ribbon or forms a ribbon <1 inch long) and a shallow depth (10 to 20 inches) to sandstone which affects root growth. The texture above the sandstone is loamy fine sand or fine sandy loam.

Above the sandstone, soil salinity is none or very slight (E.C. <2 dS/m); sodicity is typically none. Soil reaction is neutral to moderately alkaline (pH 6.6 to 8.4) in most soils and calcium carbonate content ranges from 0 to 30 percent.

There is a risk of rills and eventually gullies if vegetative cover is not adequate. The sandstone bedrock is limiting to water movement and root penetration. These soils are mainly susceptible to wind erosion and, to a lesser degree, water erosion. The hazard of erosion increases where vegetative cover is not adequate; the hazard of water erosion increases where the slope is greater than 15 percent. Low available water capacity and, in some soils, high accumulations of lime strongly influence the soil-water-plant relationship. Loss of the soil surface layer can result in a shift in species composition and/or production.

The major soil series correlated to the Shallow Sandy site are Cohagen and Flasher.

Access Web Soil Survey (https://websoilsurvey.sc.egov.usda.gov/App/WebSoilSurvey.aspx) for specific local soils information.

Table 4. Representative soil features

Animal community

Animal Community – Wildlife Interpretations

Landscape

The MLRA 54 landscape is characterized by moderately dissected rolling plains with areas of local badlands, buttes, and isolated hills. MLRA 54 is considered to have a continental climate with cold winters and hot summers, low humidity, light rainfall, and much sunshine. Extremes in temperature are common and characteristic of the MLRA. This area supports natural mixed-grass prairie vegetation with prairie rose, leadplant, and patches of western snowberry interspersed throughout the area. Green ash, chokecherry, and buffaloberry occur in draws and narrow valleys creating woody riparian corridors. Complex intermingled ecological sites create diverse grass/shrub land habitats interspersed with varying densities linear, slope, depressional, and in-stream wetlands associated with headwater streams and tributaries to the Missouri River. These habitats provide critical life-cycle components for many wildlife species.

Historic Communities/Conditions within MLRA:

The northern mixed-grass prairie was a disturbance-driven ecosystem with fire, herbivory, and climate functioning as the primary ecological drivers, either singly or often in combination. Many species of grassland birds, small mammals, insects, reptiles, amphibians, and large herds of roaming American bison, elk, and pronghorn were historically among the inhabitants adapted to this semi-arid region. Roaming herbivores, as well as several small mammal and insect species, were the primary consumers linking the grassland resources to large predators (such as the wolf, mountain lion, and grizzly bear) and smaller carnivores (such as the coyote, bobcat, red fox, and raptors). The black-tailed prairie dog was once abundant and provided ecological services by manipulating the plant and soil community, thus providing habitat for the black-footed ferret, burrowing owl, ferruginous hawk, mountain plover, swift fox, small mammals, and amphibians and reptiles. Extirpated species include free-ranging American bison, grizzly bear, gray wolf, black- footed ferret, mountain plover, and peregrine falcon (breeding). Extinct from the region is the Rocky Mountain locust.

Present Communities/Conditions within MLRA:

Following European influence, domestic livestock grazing, elimination of fire, energy development, and other anthropogenic factors influenced plant community composition and abundance. Agriculture, transportation corridors, and energy development are the main factors contributing to habitat fragmentation, reducing habitat quality for area-sensitive species. These influences fragmented the landscape; reduced or eliminated ecological drivers (fire); and introduced exotic species including smooth brome, crested wheatgrass, Kentucky bluegrass, and leafy spurge. This further impacted plant and animal communities. The loss of the bison, black-tailed prairie dogs, and fire as primary ecological drivers greatly influenced the character of the remaining native plant communities and the associated wildlife, moving towards a less diverse and more homogeneous landscape.

Included in this MLRA are the isolated Killdeer Mountains (limestone capped residual butte) containing bur oak, quaking aspen, green ash, paper birch, and American elm. Except for floodplain forests within the MLRA, the Killdeer Mountains contain the largest deciduous forest in southwestern North Dakota.

Some wildlife species in this area are deer (white-tailed and mule), elk, pronghorn, moose, coyote, red fox, bobcat, prairie rattlesnake, American badger, raccoon, North American porcupine, beaver, striped skunk, American mink, white-tailed jackrabbit, black-tailed prairie dog, Eastern and Merriam’s turkey, golden eagle, ferruginous hawks, sharp-tailed grouse, black-billed magpie, and numerous species of grassland-nesting birds and pollinating insects.

Presence of wildlife species is often determined by ecological site characteristics including grass and forb species, hydrology, aspect, and other associated ecological sites. The home ranges of a majority species are larger than one ecological site or are dependent on more than one ecological site for annual life requisites. Ecological sites offer different habitat elements as the annual life requisites change. Habitat improvement and creation must be conducted within the mobility limits of a known population for the species.

Insects play an important role providing ecological services for plant community development. Insects that are scavengers or aid in decomposition provide the food chain baseline sustaining the carnivorous insects feeding upon them. Many insects provide the ecological services necessary for pollination, keeping plant communities healthy and productive. Insects provide a protein food source for numerous species including grassland-nesting birds and their young.

Species unique to MLRA:

Bald eagle: Bald Eagles prefer large rivers, lakes, reservoirs, or wetlands that are bordered by mature stands of trees or a single large tree. Bald eagles use the Missouri River system, including Lakes Sakakawea and Oahe, and associated tributaries. Mature trees, including cottonwoods, provide nesting sites adjacent to aquatic and upland foraging sites.

Dakota skipper: The extreme northern portion of this MLRA provides limited Dakota skipper habitat. Dakota skipper habitat within MLRA 54 is considered Type B habitat. Type B habitat is described as rolling native-prairie terrain over gravelly glacial moraine deposits dominated by bluestems and needlegrasses with the likely presence of bluebell bellflower, wood lily, blacksamson echinacea, upright prairie coneflower, and blanketflower. The United States Fish and Wildlife Service lists two critical habitat units within the MLRA in McKenzie County, North Dakota.

Golden eagle: The Lake Sakakawea breaks, bluffs, and rock outcroppings within the northwest portion of the MLRA are key areas for golden eagle nesting. Grasslands, shrublands, and black-tailed prairie dog towns are used for foraging.

Black-footed ferret: Black-footed ferrets have been reintroduced as an experimental population in the southern portion of the MLRA located on the Cheyenne Sioux Indian Reservation. Since reintroduction between 1991 and 1996, black-footed ferrets have been documented on the Standing Rock Sioux Indian Reservation approximately 20 miles north of the reintroduction site. Black-footed ferrets rely exclusively on prairie dog towns for shelter, breeding, and food sources (prairie dogs and other species within the town).

Least tern (Interior): Least terns are found on the Missouri River system in MLRA 54. Sparsely vegetated sandbars within the free-flowing portions of the Missouri River or shorelines of Lake Oahe and Sakakawea are used for nesting and foraging.

Species of Concern within the MLRA:

The following is a list of species considered “species of conservation priority” in the North Dakota State Wildlife Action Plan (2015); “species of greatest conservation need” in the Montana State Wildlife Action Plan (2015) and the South Dakota State Wildlife Action Plan (2014); and “species listed as threatened, endangered, or petitioned” under the Endangered Species Act within MLRA 54 at the time this section was developed:

Invertebrates: Dakota skipper, little white tiger beetle, monarch butterfly, Ottoe skipper, regal fritillary, yellow-banded bumble bee, and western bumble bee.

Birds: American Kestrel, Baird’s sparrow, bald eagle, black-billed cuckoo, black tern, bobolink, Brewer’s sparrow, burrowing owl, chestnut-collared longspur, ferruginous hawk, golden eagle, grasshopper sparrow, greater sage-grouse, lark bunting, loggerhead shrike, least tern, long-billed curlew, marbled godwit, McCown’s longspur, mountain plover, northern goshawk, northern harrier, northern pintail, peregrine falcon (migration), piping plover, prairie falcon, red knot (migration), red- headed woodpecker, sharp-tailed grouse, short-eared owl, Sprague’s pipit, Swainson’s hawk, trumpeter swan, upland sandpiper, western meadowlark, willet, Wilson’s phalarope, and whooping crane (migration).

Mammals: Big and little brown bats, long-eared bat, long-legged bat, northern long-eared bat, Townsend’s big-eared bat, western small-footed bat, black-footed ferret, black-tailed prairie dog, dwarf shrew, gray wolf, hispid pocket mouse, Merriam’s shrew, northwestern moose, sagebrush vole, silver-haired bat, and swift fox.

Amphibians/Reptiles: Common snapping turtle, Great Plains toad, false map turtle, greater short- horned lizard, milk snake, northern leopard frog, plains hognose snake, plains spadefoot, smooth green snake, and smooth softshell and spiny softshell turtle.

Fish and Mussels: Blue sucker, burbot, flathead chub, fragile papershell, northern redbelly dace, paddlefish, pallid sturgeon, pearl dace, pink papershell, shortnose gar, sickle-fin chub, sturgeon chub, and sauger.

Grassland Management for Wildlife in the MLRA

Management activities within the community phase pathways impact wildlife. Community phase, transitional, and restoration pathways are keys to long-term management within each state and between states. Significant inputs must occur to cross the threshold between states (e.g., State 3.0 to 2.0) requiring substantial economic inputs and management (mechanical, reseeding, prescribed fire, woody vegetation removal, grazing intensity, etc.). Timing, intensity, and frequency of these inputs can have dramatic positive or negative effects on local wildlife species. Ranchers and other land managers must always consider the long-term beneficial effects of management on the habitat in comparison to potential short-term negative effects to individuals.

Ecological sites occur as intermingled complexes on the landscape with gradual or sometimes abrupt transitions. Rarely do ecological sites exist in large enough acreage to manage independently. Ecological sites that support a dominance of herbaceous vegetation (Loamy/Clayey) can be located adjacent to ecological sites that support medium to tall shrubs (Loamy Overflow). Conversely, ecological sites that are dominated by short- to mid-statured grasses (Claypan) can be adjacent to sites with bare soil only supporting minor amounts of short grasses and forbs (Thin Claypan).

Management of these complex ecological sites can provide a heterogeneous or a homogenous landscape. Grassland bird use declines as the plant community transitions to a homogenous state. Managers should recognize ecological sites and the complexes they occur in to properly manage the landscape. A management regime for one ecological site may negatively impact an adjacent site; for example, alteration of a grazing regime within a Loamy Overflow ecological site to encourage understory growth may encourage exotic cool-season grasses to increase or dominate an adjacent ecological site.

Life requisites and habitat deficiencies are determined for targeted species. Deficiencies must be addressed along community phase, transitional, and restoration pathways as presented in specific state-and-transition models. Ecological sites should be managed and restored within the site’s capabilities to provide sustainable habitat. Managers also should consider habitat provided by adjacent/intermingled ecological sites for species with home ranges or life requisites that cannot be provided by one ecological site.

With populations of many grassland-nesting birds in decline, it is important to maintain these ecological sites in a 1.0 Reference State (rarely found intact) or the 2.0 Native/Invaded. Plant communities optimal for a guild of grassland species serve as a population source where the birth rate exceeds mortality. Species may use marginal plant communities; however, these sites may function as a population sink where mortality exceeds the birth rate.

Understanding preferred vegetative stature and sensitivity to woody encroachment is necessary to manage for the specific grassland species. Various grass heights may be used for breeding, nesting, foraging, or winter habitat. While most species use varying heights, many have a preferred vegetative stature height. The following chart provides preferred vegetative stature heights and sensitivity to woody vegetation encroachment.

For more information:
https://efotg.sc.egov.usda.gov/references/public/ND/54_Shallow_Sandy_Narrative_FINAL_Ref_FSG.pdf

Shallow Sandy Wildlife Habitat Interpretation:

Shallow Sandy ecological sites are droughty sites identified by the presence of moderately coarse or coarse soil textures (fine sandy loamy or sandier) and a shallow depth (10 to 20 inches) to weathered bedrock or hard sandstone bedrock. Shallow Sandy sites support drought-tolerant species but are still productive compared to Sandy sites due to the increase in tall warm-season grasses like prairie sandreed. Shallow Sandy sites support diverse stands of tall- mid- and short warm- and cool-season grasses. Associated ecological sites include Sands, Sandy, Very Shallow, Thin Loamy, Limy Sands, Steep-Sided Wooded Draw, and Badland. This complex of ecological sites provides habitat for many edge-sensitive grassland bird species.

Shallow Sandy habitat features and components commonly support grassland-nesting birds, notably sharp-tailed grouse nesting, brood cover, and possibly lekking sites (depending upon its plant community state). Insects rely on associated forbs and grasses for survival, serve as food sources for birds and their young, and as forage for small and large herbivores.

Shallow Sandy ecological sites may be found in five plant community states (1.0 Reference State, 2.0 Native/Invaded State, 3.0 Invaded State, 4.0 Invaded Wooded State, and 5.0 Go-Back State) within a local landscape. Multiple plant community phases exist within States 1.0 and 2.0. Today, these states occur primarily in response to grazing and drought. Secondary influences include anthropogenic disturbances, black-tailed prairie dogs, and fire.

Because there is no known restoration pathway from State 2.0 to State 1.0, it is important to intensively manage using tools in the community phase pathways of State 1.0 and State 2.0 to prevent further plant community degradation along the T1A Transitional Pathways to Native/Invaded State 2.0. Native wildlife generally benefits from the heterogeneous grasslands, in stature and plant composition, found in States 1.0 and 2.0 which include diverse grass and forb species with varying stature and density. As plant communities degrade and transition to States 3.0 and 4.0, short warm- season grasses, exotic grasses, and creeping juniper increase while native grasses and forbs are reduced. This transition results in reduced stature or an increase in woody vegetation.

Success along Restoration Pathway R3A from State 3.0 to State 2.0 is very difficult and is dependent upon presence of a remnant native grass population. This concept also applies to wildlife, as the target species must either be present on adjacent State 1.0 or State 2.0 plant communities or on ecological sites within the species’ mobility limits. Species with limited mobility, such as Dakota skippers, must exist near the plant community to utilize restored sites. Mobile species (such as grassland-nesting birds) can more easily locate and utilize isolated, restored plant communities.

Plant community phase in the State 3.0 shows increased homogeneity of exotic cool-season grasses with a further reduction in native forbs. Reduced forb diversity limits insect populations, negatively affecting foraging opportunities for grassland-nesting birds. A homogenous grassland landscape does not provide quality escape or winter cover. As a result, many species are not able to meet life requisites within State 3.0. Increased exotic-grass litter can limit access to bare ground by nesting insects.

Management along community phase, transition, or restoration pathways should focus on attainable changes. Short- and long-term monetary costs must be evaluated against short- and long-term ecological services in creating and maintaining habitat of sufficient quality to support a sustainable population density.

1.0 Reference State

Community Phase 1.1 Prairie Sandreed-Needle and Thread/Sedges: This plant community offers quality wildlife habitat; every effort should be made to maintain this ecological site within this community phase. This phase retains high functionality through continued maintenance, including prescribed grazing with adequate recovery period as well as prescribed fire. Predominance of grass species in this community favors grazers and mixed-feeders (animals selecting grasses as well as forbs and shrubs). The structural diversity provides habitat for a wide array of migratory and resident birds.

Invertebrates: Insects play a role in maintaining the forb community and provide a forage base for grassland birds, reptiles, and rodents. These services include putting plant material and dung in contact with mineral soil to be used by low trophic level consumers (such as invertebrate shredders, predators, herbivores, dung beetles and fungal-feeders).

Dakota skippers may prefer this site when host plants, such as little bluestem, are present. Regal fritillary habitat is limited due to Nuttall's violet and prairie violets being uncommon. Monarch butterfly may use flowering forbs on this site; however, few milkweed species are found on this site to support breeding.

Bumblebees and other native bees utilize forbs and bare ground for nesting amongst bunchgrasses. Prescribed grazing with adequate recovery periods (as well as prescribed fire) to maintain the 1.1 Phase has little effect on nests of ground-dwelling insects.

Birds: This plant community provides quality nesting, foraging, and escape habitats favored by mid- to tall- grass nesting birds. Several species of grassland birds which prefer mid- to tall-grass stature will use this site. In years with reduced precipitation or drought, nesting recruitment may be compromised. This plant community provides suitable areas for sharp-tailed grouse nesting and brood-rearing habitat. Diverse prey populations provide good hunting opportunities for grassland raptors. Silver sagebrush is incidental to the site and will not provide the necessary life requisites for the Brewer’s sparrow.

Mammals: The diversity of grasses and forbs provide high nutrition levels for small and large herbivores including voles, mice, rodents, jackrabbits, pronghorn, and deer (white-tailed and mule). Short- to moderate-statured grasses provide suitable food, thermal, protective, and escape cover for small herbivores. The composition of mid- to tallgrasses may limit use by the hispid pocket mouse.

Amphibians and Reptiles: This ecological site and associated plant communities provide habitat for smooth green snakes. This ecological site can provide habitat for the northern leopard frog and Great Plains toad dependent on distance to wetland or Riparian Complex ecological sites. Plains spadefoot prefer sandy soils found on this site and plant community and may utilize this site if small ephemeral ponds are available for breeding. Sandy soils provide burrowing sites for short-horned lizards; however, vegetation within this plant community may be too tall and dense for the short-horned lizard.

Fish and Mussels: This ecological site is not directly associated with streams, rivers, or water bodies. Associated ecological sites can receive run-on hydrology from Sallow Sandy sites. Management on these interconnected sites will have limited, secondary effects on aquatic species.

Community Phase 1.2 Needle and Thread–Blue Grama/Sedges: Multiyear drought, with or without heavy continuous grazing and/or annual continuous early spring seasonal grazing, increases the percentage of short cool-season and short warm-season grasses and sedges in this plant community. This plant community becomes dominated by shorter grasses, changing the stature of plant community from mid- to tall plant species to mid- to short-grass species.

Invertebrates: Provides similar life requisites as Community Phase 1.1; however, heavy, continuous grazing or early spring seasonal grazing may negatively impact ground-nesting sites for bumblebees, other native bees, and other ground-nesting insects due to reduction of forbs and timing of forb flowering.

Birds: This plant community provides nesting, foraging, and escape habitats favored by short- to mid- grass nesting birds. A shift to shorter herbaceous plant stature along Community Phase Pathway 1.1A begins to benefit McCown’s longspur, chestnut-collared longspur, horned lark, and burrowing owl.

Species preferring midgrass stature will be generally successful with normal to above normal precipitation and a change in management along the 1.2A Community Phase Pathway. In years with reduced precipitation or heavy grazing, nesting recruitment may be compromised for midgrass nesting species. This plant community provides areas suitable for sharp-tailed grouse leks. Limited cover and diverse prey populations provide good hunting opportunity for grassland raptors.

Mammals: Shorter statured grasses reduce thermal, shelter, and escape cover for larger ungulates.

Amphibians and Reptiles: Provides similar life requisites as Community Phase 1.1.

Fish and Mussels: Provides similar secondary resources benefits as Community Phase 1.1.

Community Phase 1.3 Little Bluestem-Needle and Thread/Sedges: Physical soil surface movement associated with the formation of “steps” (minor slumping) through water erosion and deposition in community phase pathway 1.1B or 1.2C cause increased calcium carbonates at the surface, giving little bluestem a competitive advantage. This plant community occurs in a mosaic with community phase 1.1 or 1.2 creating a patchwork landscape. Little bluestem dependent species, such as Dakota skipper, can utilize this habitat.

Invertebrates: Provides similar life requisites as Community Phase 1.1; however, the increase in the host plant little bluestem has the potential for increased use by the Dakota skipper.

Birds: Dominated by bunch grasses with short statured sedges, this plant community provides nesting cover for grassland nesting birds that prefer mid- to short- statured nesting cover.

Mammals: Provides similar life requisites as Community Phase 1.2.

Amphibians and Reptiles: Provides similar life requisites as Community Phase 1.1.

Fish and Mussels: Provides similar secondary resources benefits as Community Phase 1.1.

Community Phase 1.4 Sedges/Annual Forbs/Bare Ground (Prairie Dog Town): This plant community phase is characterized by grazing tolerant sedges, annual forbs, and a higher percentage of bare ground due to the increase in annul forbs. Continued heavy grazing, long-term prairie dog occupation, or a combination of these disturbances will cause a shift to increased annual forbs with a reduction in perennial grasses. Perennial forbs’ stature and abundance are being replaced by short-statured annual forbs. Bare ground increases and litter amounts and infiltration rates decline; soil surface temperatures increase. Scruffy in appearance, this plant community is resilient, retaining sufficient grazing sensitive native species to return to 1.2 community phase via community phase pathway 1.4A.

Invertebrates: A switch to annual forbs from perennial forbs may have a significant impact to invertebrates, due to the loss of season-long nectar producing plants for pollinators. Annual forbs’ bloom periods are dependent upon climatic conditions, especially precipitation events, and may not provide season-long nectar production. Season-long nectar sources may be found on adjacent plant communities or ecological sites for mobile species. Increased bare ground provides increased nesting sites for bumblebees and other ground nesting insects.

Birds: This short-structured phase, driven by short-term prairie dog occupation, is favored by burrowing owls, chestnut-collared longspur, and McCown’s longspur. Prairie dog towns provide abundant prey populations for grassland raptors. The lack of grass and forb structure limits use by many bird species. Managing this phase along community phase pathway 1.4A can be an economical and successful method to restore habitat for many grassland nesting birds.

Mammals: Suitable food, thermal, shelter, and escape cover (reduction in litter) for most mammals becomes limited. The loss of diversity of grasses and forbs reduces nutrition levels for small and large herbivores including rodents, white-tailed jackrabbits, and deer. Grazers, such as pronghorn, use prairie dog towns for foraging and loafing. Managing this phase along community phase pathway 1.4A can be an economical and successful method to restore habitat.

Amphibians/Reptiles: Prairie dog towns provide habitat for both amphibians and reptiles. Tiger salamanders, prairie rattlesnakes, plains hog-nosed snake, and other snake species will use the burrow systems of prairie dogs for shelter and denning.

Fish and Mussels: Provides similar secondary resources benefits as Community Phase 1.1.

2.0 Native Invaded State

Community Phase 2.1 Prairie Sandreed-Needle and Thread/Sedges: This plant community develops through Transition Pathway T1A due to changes in management (chronic season-long or heavy late season grazing or complete rest) and the presence of exotic, cool-season grasses. The threshold between States 1.0 and 2.0 is crossed when Kentucky bluegrass, crested wheatgrass, or other exotic species become established. This plant community phase has a very similar appearance and function to the Reference State of Community 1.1, except it has a minor amount of cool-season exotic grasses and forbs. This phase functions at a high level for native wildlife; therefore, managers should consider the 2.0 Community Phase Pathways to avoid transitioning to State 3.0.

Invertebrates: Provides similar life requisites as Community Phase 1.1.

Birds: Provides similar life requisites as Community Phase 1.1.
Mammals: Provides similar life requisites as Community Phase 1.1.

Amphibians and Reptiles: Provides similar life requisites as Community Phase 1.1.

Fish and Mussels: Provides similar secondary resources benefits as Community Phase 1.1.

Community Phase 2.2 Needle and Thread-Blue Grama/Sedges: Continuous, heavy season-long grazing or heavy seasonal grazing (with or without drought) along Community Phase Pathway 2.1A, leads to shorter-statured grasses (such as needle and thread and blue grama) and sedges. Dominated by shorter- statured grasses and sedges and a loss of nitrogen-fixing or leguminous native forbs, the diversity of this plant community is reduced. Both tap-rooted and fibrous-rooted perennial forbs increase in this phase but remain a minor component. Prescribed grazing (with adequate recovery periods) and return to average precipitation along Community Phase Pathway 2.2A is an efficient, effective method to regain the cool- season grass and forb diversity components in Community Phase 2.1.

Invertebrates: The reduction of native forbs and increase in sod-forming grasses limit foraging and nesting sites for all pollinators. Continuous, heavy season-long grazing or heavy seasonal grazing may reduce ground-nesting site availability. Homogeneity of forb species may limit season-long nectar availability.

Birds: Continuous, heavy season-long grazing or heavy seasonal grazing will reduce nesting sites, forage (invertebrates), and cover. A reduced forb component may limit foraging opportunities. Stature is generally short, serving both mid- and shortgrass-nesting birds. Shortgrass-nesting birds favor this phase. Species preferring midgrass stature will be generally successful with normal to above normal precipitation and a change in management along the 2.2A Community Phase Pathway. In years with reduced precipitation or heavy grazing during the nesting season, nesting recruitment may be compromised for species that prefer midgrass nesting. This plant community provides areas suitable for sharp-tailed grouse lek site development. Limited stature and diverse prey populations provide good hunting opportunity for grassland raptors.

Mammals: Suitable food, thermal, protective, and escape cover (reduction in litter) for most mammals becomes limited. The loss of diversity of grasses and forbs reduces nutrition levels for small and large herbivores including voles, mice, rodents, jack rabbits, pronghorn, and deer.

Amphibians and Reptiles: Provides similar life requisites as Community Phase 1.1.

Fish and Mussels: Provides similar secondary resources benefits as Community Phase 1.1.

Community Phase 2.3 Little Bluestem-Needle and Thread/Sedges: Physical soil surface movement associated with the formation of “steps” (minor slumping) through water erosion and deposition in community phase pathway 1.1B cause increased calcium carbonates at the surface, providing little bluestem a competitive advantage. This plant community occurs in a mosaic with Community Phase 1.1 creating a patchwork landscape. Little bluestem dependent species, such as Dakota skipper, can utilize this habitat.

Insects: Provides similar life requisites as Community Phase 1.3.

Birds: Provides similar life requisites as Community Phase 1.3. Mammals: Provides similar life requisites as Community Phase 2.2.

Amphibians and Reptiles: Provides similar life requisites as Community Phase 1.1.

Fish and Mussels: Provides similar secondary resources benefits as Community Phase 1.1.

Community Phase 2.4 Sedges/Annual Forbs/Bare Ground (Prairie Dog Town): This plant community is a result of ecological services provided by long-term black-tailed prairie dog occupation coupled with the introduction of exotic cool-season grasses and annual forbs along Community Phase Pathway 2.2C. Removal of black-tailed prairie dogs via Community Phase Pathway 2.4A can move this community back to Phase 2.2, but this may require significant management and economic inputs. Black-tailed prairie dogs provide primary ecological services to transition to and maintain Plant Community Phase 2.4.

Invertebrates: The loss of native forb diversity limits use by all pollinators. However, annual, and invasive forbs will provide limited seasonal use, dependent upon bloom period. Bare ground, burrows, and short plant stature provide nest sites for bumblebees and other ground-nesting insects. Burrowing owls place dung around their burrow entrance to attract dung beetles and other insects as a food source.

Birds: Burrowing owl and McCown’s longspur rely on the stature and composition this plant community provides. Presence of black-tailed prairie dogs provided diverse prey populations for grassland raptors, including burrowing owls, prairie falcons, and ferruginous hawks. Burrowing owls nest in abandoned prairie dog burrows.

Mammals: Suitable food, thermal, protective, and escape cover (reduction in litter) for most mammals becomes limited. The loss of grass and forb diversity reduces nutrition levels for small and large herbivores including voles, mice, rodents, white-tailed jackrabbits, cottontail rabbits, and deer. Except for black-tailed prairie dogs, this plant community provides little habitat for mid- or small herbivores. Nonetheless, black-tailed prairie dog towns provide important habitat for many mammal species, including small rodents. Grazers, such as pronghorn, use prairie dog towns for foraging and loafing.

Amphibians and Reptiles: Prairie dog towns provide habitat for both amphibians and reptiles. Tiger salamanders, prairie rattlesnakes, plains hog-nosed snake, and other snake species will use the burrow systems of prairie dogs for shelter and denning.

Fish and Mussels: Provides similar secondary resources benefits as Community Phase 1.1.

Community Phase 2.5 Shrubs/Forbs/Needlegrasses/Trees: Extended periods of non-use or very light grazing, and no fire, allows shrubs and forbs to dominate this plant community. This plant community phase is characterized by a conspicuous shrub component, forbs, needlegrasses, and perhaps green ash trees. Leadplant, chokecherry, Saskatoon serviceberry, and soapweed yucca are common shrubs. Common forbs include white heath aster, goldenrod, common yarrow, and white sagebrush. Green ash trees are also often present.

Invertebrates: Forbs and shrubs provide early- to mid-season pollen and nectar for use by all pollinators. Sufficient bare ground provides nest sites for bumblebees and other ground-nesting insects.

Birds: Dependent upon the dentistry of shrubs and possible trees, grassland nesting birds intolerant of woody species my not use this site.

Mammals: Suitable food, thermal, protective, and escape cover are available for small and large mammals,

Amphibians and Reptiles: Amphibians and Reptiles: Provides similar life requisites as Community Phase 1.1.

Fish and Mussels: Provides similar secondary resources benefits as Community Phase 1.1.

3.0 Invaded State

Community Phase 3.1 Exotic Cool-Season Grasses/Forbs/Shrubs: Community Phase Pathway T2A is characterized by complete rest or low intensity (<20% utilization) grazing and elimination of fire when exotic cool-season grasses are present, as in Community Phase 2.0. This plant community phase is characterized by a dominance (>30%) of exotic cool-season grasses, such as Kentucky bluegrass and crested wheatgrass. Restoration Pathway R3A requires remnant amounts of native grasses (i.e., prairie sandreed, blue grama, needlegrasses, little bluestem) and forbs (e.g., white sagebrush, silverleaf Indian breadroot, and upright prairie coneflower) with frequent prescribed burns and high levels of grazing management targeting the exotic cool-season grasses to improve competitiveness and increase vigor and density. Without intensive management, the remnant native plants will not increase adequately to transition back to State 2.0. Intensified management along the R3A Pathway will have significant short- term negative impacts on wildlife habitat; however, this is necessary to restore long-term native habitat functions. Long-term lack of fire will help this Plant Community Phase transition to 4.1.

Insects: Exotic grasses result from non-use or low intensity (<20% utilization) grazing and limit use by beneficial insects provided in States 1.0 and 2.0. Increased litter and lack of grazing leads to limited contact between plant material and mineral soil resulting in a cooler micro-climate, which is unfavorable to most insects. Lack of bare soil limits ground-nesting sites for native bees and other ground-nesting insects. The lack of nectar-producing plants limits forage opportunities for bumblebees, regal fritillary, monarch butterfly, and other pollinating species.

Birds: The homogeneous community phase, dominated by exotic plant species, provides limited habitat and life requisites for most obligate grassland-nesting birds. Lack of plant diversity and stature, along with increased litter, limits use by many grassland-nesting birds. Litter accumulations reduce use by chestnut- collared and McCown’s longspurs. Burrowing owls may use the site if sufficient burrows of black-tailed prairie dogs or other burrowing mammals exist. Sharp-tailed grouse leks can be found on this exotic cool- season plant-dominated community; however, winter cover must be provided by adjacent ecological sites or plant communities.

Mammals: Black-tailed prairie dog expansion is possible in this plant community phase except where creeping juniper or soapweed yucca are dominant. This community phase provides foraging habitat for pronghorn and deer. Litter accumulation and shrub cover favors thermal, protective, and escape cover for small rodents. However, reduced availability of native grass seed may reduce food availability for species such as the hispid pocket mouse.

Amphibians and Reptiles: Provides similar secondary resources benefits as Community Phase 1.1.

Fish and Mussels: Provides similar secondary resources benefits as Community Phase 1.1.

4.0 Invaded Wooded State

Community Phase 4.1 Creeping Juniper/Shrubs: Transitional Pathway T2B is characterized long-term lack of fire allowing creeping juniper to dominate. Domination by creeping juniper causes a reduction in forbs, as well as warm- and cool-season native and exotic grasses. Prescribed burning along Restoration Pathway R4A or R4B requires remnant amounts of native warm-season grasses (e.g., blue grama), cool- season grasses (e.g., needlegrasses, western wheatgrass, and prairie Junegrass), and forbs (e.g., silverleaf Indian breadroot, and upright prairie coneflower) to move this plant community to 2.0 or 3.0 States. These remnant populations can only be expressed through frequent prescribed burns and high levels of prescribed grazing management targeting the exotic cool-season grasses. Intensified management along the R4A Pathway will have significant short-term negative impacts on wildlife habitat; however, this is necessary to restore long-term native habitat functions.

Invertebrates: Creeping juniper limits use by beneficial insects provided in States 1.0 and 2.0. Creeping juniper does not provide a pollen or nectar source and limits establishment of other flowering forbs or shrubs. The lack of nectar-producing plants limits forage opportunities for bumblebees, regal fritillary, monarch butterfly, and other pollinating species.

Birds: Long-term very light grazing and lack of fire (via Transitional PathwaysT2B and T3A) transitions this ecological site from a grassland dominated site to a creeping juniper dominated ecological site limiting use by grassland-nesting birds. In most cases the transition to creeping juniper occurs on adjoining ecological sites prone to the same T2B and T3A pathways as this Shallow Sandy ecological site. Juniper berries provide a food source for many bird species including sharptailed grouse.

Mammals: Creeping juniper limited use for larger ungulates but may be used by small mammals for escape and thermal cover.

Amphibians/Reptiles: Community Phase 4.1 will not support most of the amphibians and reptiles expected to be present in State 1.0, 2.0 and 3.0.

Fish and Mussels: Provides similar secondary resources benefits as Community Phase 1.1.

5.0 Go-Back State

Community Phase 5.1 Annual/Pioneer Perennial/Exotics: These plant communities are the result of severe soil disturbance (such as cropping, recreational activity, or concentrated livestock activity for a prolonged period). Following cessation of disturbances, the resulting plant community is dominated by early pioneer annual and perennial plant species. Plant species composition and production are highly variable. Weedy plants can provide pollinator habitat along with spring and summer cover for many mammals and birds, and their young. Dense weed cover can keep soils moist, increasing the presence of insects. Tall stature provided by some weeds, such as marsh elder and ragweed, offer thermal cover and seeds throughout winter.

Successful restoration of native species along Restoration Pathway R5A results in a native grass and forb community in State 2.0, Native/Invaded. Failed restoration to native species through Restoration Pathway R5B results in Invaded State 3.0. Wildlife species response will be dependent upon plant community composition, vegetative stature, patch size, and management activities (such as prescribed grazing, burning, interseeding, haying, or noxious weed control).

Animal Community – Grazing Interpretations

This site is well adapted to managed grazing by domestic livestock. The predominance of herbaceous plants across all plant community phases best lends these sites to grazing by cattle, but other domestic grazers with differing diet preferences may also be a consideration depending upon management objectives. Often, the current plant community does not match any particular plant community (as described in the ecological site description). Because of this, a resource inventory is necessary to document plant composition and production. Proper interpretation of this inventory data will permit the establishment of a safe, initial stocking rate for the type and class of animals and level of grazing management. More accurate stocking rate estimates should eventually be calculated using actual stocking rate information and monitoring data.

NRCS defines prescribed grazing as “managing the harvest of vegetation with grazing and/or browsing animals with the intent to achieve specific ecological, economic, and management objectives”. As used in this site description, the term ‘prescribed grazing’ is intended to include multiple grazing management systems (e.g., rotational grazing, twice-over grazing, conservation grazing, targeted grazing, etc.) provided that, whatever management system is implemented, it meets the intent of prescribed grazing definition.

The basic grazing prescription addresses balancing forage demand (quality and quantity) with available forage, varying grazing and deferment periods from year-to-year, matching recovery/deferment periods to growing conditions when pastures are grazed more than once in a growing season, implementation of a contingency (e.g., drought) plan, and a monitoring plan. When the management goal is to facilitate change from one plant community phase or state to another, then the prescription needs to be designed to shift the competitive advantage to favor the native grass and forb species.

Grazing levels are noted within the plant community narratives and pathways in reference to grazing management. “Degree of utilization” is defined as the proportion of the current years forage production that is consumed and/or destroyed by grazing animals (may refer to a single plant species or a portion or all the vegetation). “Grazing utilization” is classified as slight, moderate, full, close, and severe (see the following table for description of each grazing use category). The following utilization levels are also described in the Ranchers Guide to Grassland Management IV. Utilization levels are determined by using the landscape appearance method as outlined in the Interagency Technical Reference “Utilization Studies and Residual Measurements” 1734-3.

Utilization Level % Use Description
Slight (Light) 0-20 Appears practically undisturbed when viewed obliquely. Only choice areas and forage utilized.

Moderate 20-40 Almost all of accessible range shows grazing. Little or no use of poor forage. Little evidence of trailing to grazing.

Full 40-60 All fully accessible areas are grazed. The major sites have key forage species properly utilized (about half taken, half left). Points of concentration with overuse limited to 5 to 10 percent of accessible area.

Close (Heavy) 60-80 All accessible range plainly shows use and major sections closely cropped. Livestock forced to use less desirable forage, considering seasonal preference.

Severe > 80 Key forage species completely used. Low-value forages are dominant.

Hydrological functions

Available water is the principal factor limiting forage production on this site. This site is dominated by soils in hydrologic group D. Infiltration is typically moderately rapid to rapid; runoff potential for this site varies from low to high depending on surface texture, slope percent, and ground cover. In many cases, areas with greater than 75% ground cover have the greatest potential for high infiltration and lower runoff. An example of an exception would be where shortgrasses form a strong sod and dominate the site. Dominance by blue grama, Kentucky bluegrass, and/or smooth bromegrass will result in reduced infiltration and increased runoff. Areas where ground cover is less than 50% have the greatest potential to have reduced infiltration and higher runoff (refer to Section 4, NRCS National Engineering Handbook for runoff quantities and hydrologic curves).

Recreational uses

The largest acreage of public land available for recreation in the MLRA is owned and managed by the United States Forest Service (USFS) within the Little Missouri, Grand River, and Cedar River National Grasslands in South Dakota and the Little Missouri National Grasslands in North Dakota (687,398 acres). These areas are available for hunting, fishing, hiking, camping, horse and bike riding, nature viewing, etc. In addition, the Bureau of Land Management (BLM) manages (40,264 acres) in North and South Dakota with the same recreational opportunities as the USFS lands.

The United States Army Corps of Engineers (USAE) owns 496,162 acres of land and water located on and adjacent to Lake Sakakawea and Lake Oahe. The North Dakota and South Dakota Game and Fish Departments manage the fisheries resources. These two Missouri River reservoirs provide excellent fishing and water recreation opportunities. In addition, the United States Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) manages a national fish hatchery below Garrison Dam.

The USFWS manages 36,858 acres in the National Wildlife Refuge system while the North Dakota and South Dakota wildlife management agencies manage 72,218 acres as wildlife or game management areas. The North Dakota, South Dakota, and Montana Department of Trust Lands manage 486,482 acres. These areas provide hunting, bird watching, hiking, and other outdoor recreation opportunities. North Dakota Wildlife Management Areas along the shoreline of Lake Sakakawea and the Missouri River account for 60,000 acres of the approximately 72,218 acres of land managed by the states for wildlife habitat in MLRA 54. Located in the northern portion of the MLRA, the Killdeer Mountain WMA is the largest tract of state-owned land managed for wildlife habitat at approximately 7,000 acres.

The largest refuge managed by the United States Fish and Wildlife service is Lake Ilo National Wildlife Refuge totaling approximately 4,000 acres. United States Bureau of Reclamation manages approximately 11,000 acres at Lake Tschida and 8,460 acres at Bowman-Haley Lake for fish and wildlife habitat. The National Park Service manages the Knife River Indian Village National Historic Site; the North Dakota Historical Society manages the Double Ditch Indian Village site.

Bird watching: Public and private grasslands within MLRA 54 provide essential habitat for prairie-dependent bird species such as Sprague's pipits, western meadowlark, and Baird's sparrow along with some of the larger, showy members of the upland prairie include marbled godwits, upland sandpipers, willets, and sharp-tailed grouse. Publicly owned lands provide excellent birding opportunities. MLRA 54 is in the Central Flyway.

Hunting/Fishing: MLRA 54 is a fall destination for thousands of pheasant and upland game bird hunters. This MLRA also provides excellent deer (white-tailed and mule), pronghorn, and coyote hunting opportunities. Lake Sakakawea, Lake Oahe, Lake Tschida, and the Missouri River provide excellent year-round fishing opportunities. The North Dakota Game and Fish Department and South Dakota Game, Fish and Parks manage approximately 40 fishing lakes within the MLRA. Available species include yellow perch, walleye, northern pike, muskellunge, crappie, bluegill, rainbow trout, and smallmouth bass. Chinook salmon are stocked in Lake Sakakawea.

Camping: Numerous state operated campgrounds are located along the shores of Lake Sakakawea, Lake Oahe, Missouri River, and Shadehill Reservoir. Primitive camping is allowed on Grand River and Cedar River National Grasslands in South Dakota and the Little Missouri National Grasslands in North Dakota. Other numerous camping (primitive and improved) sites are available in numerous city and county parks.

Hiking/Biking/Horseback Riding: Hiking is permitted on most state and federally owned lands. Developed hiking and biking trails can be found on Harmon Lake (13.1 miles), Roughrider Trail (Morton County, 16.5 miles), Missouri River State Natural Area (5 miles), Ft. Abraham Lincoln State Park (8 miles), Cross Ranch State Park (14 miles), Grand River National Grasslands (7 miles), Lake Sakakawea State Park (5 miles), and Lewis & Clark State Park (5 miles). In addition, extensive biking and walking trails are found in local county and city parks. Ft. Abraham Lincoln State Park has 6 miles of horseback trails.

Wood products

No appreciable wood products are present on the site.

Other products

Seed harvest of native plant species can provide additional income on this site.

Other information

Site Development and Testing Plan

This ESD is the best available current knowledge. The site concept and species composition table have been used in the field and tested for more than five years. It is expected that as additional information becomes available revisions may be required.

Inventory data references

Information presented here has been derived from NRCS and other federal/state agency clipping and inventory data. Also, field knowledge of range-trained personnel was used. All descriptions were peer reviewed and/or field-tested by various private, state and federal agency specialists.

Other references

Bakker, K.K. 2003. The effect of woody vegetation on grassland nesting birds: an annotated bibliography. The Proceedings of the South Dakota Academy of Science 82:119-141.

Barker, W.T. and W. C. Whitman. 1988. Vegetation of the Northern Great Plains. Rangelands 10(6): 266-272.

Bjugstad, A.J. 1965. Vegetation measurements in relation to range condition classification on the principal range sites of southwestern North Dakota. PhD Thesis. N D State University.

Bluemle, J.P. 2017. North Dakota Notes No. 13, North Dakota’s mountainous areas: the Killdeer Mountains and the Turtle Mountains. Accessed on web, April 10, 2017, at https://www.dmr.nd.gov/ndgs/ndnotes/ndn15- h.htm.

Bluemle. J.P. 2016. North Dakota’s geologic legacy. North Dakota State University Press. 382 pages.

Brand, M. D. and H. Goetz. 1986. Vegetation of exclosures in southwestern North Dakota. Journal of Range Management 39: 434-437.

Briske, D.D. (editor). 2017. Rangeland systems – processes, management, and challenges. Springer Series on Environmental Management. 661 pages.

DeKeyser, E.S., G. Clambey, K. Krabbenhoft, and J. Ostendorf. 2009. Are changes in species composition on central North Dakota rangelands due to non-use management? Rangelands 31:16-19

Dodd, J.L. 1970. Distribution and community site relations of bluebunch wheatgrass in North Dakota. PhD Thesis. N D State University. Fargo, North Dakota.

Dornbusch, M.J., R.F. Limb, and C.K. Gasch. 2018. Facilitation of an exotic grass through nitrogen enrichment by an exotic legume. Rangeland Ecology & Management 71:691-694.

Dyke, S.R., S.K. Johnson, and P.T. Isakson. 2015. North Dakota state wildlife action plan. North Dakota Game and Fish Department, Bismarck, ND. 468 pages.

Ehrenfeld, Joan G. 2002. Effects of exotic plant invasions on soil nutrient cycling processes. Ecosystems 6:503-523.

Ereth, C., J. Hendrickson, D. Kirby, E. DeKeyser, K. Sedevic, and M. West. Controlling Kentucky bluegrass with herbicide and burning is influenced by invasion level. Invasive Plant Science and Management 10: 80-89.

Flesland, J.R. 1964. Composition and structure of the salt-desert shrub type in the badlands of western North Dakota. M.S. Thesis. ND State University.

Franzen, David. 2007. Managing saline soils in North Dakota. SF-1087. NDSU Extension Service. North Dakota State University.

Gilgert, W. and S. Zack. 2010. Integrating multiple ecosystem services into ecological site descriptions. Rangelands: 32:49-54.

Grant, T.A. and R.K. Murphy. 2005. Changes on woodland cover on prairie refuges in North Dakota, USA. Natural Areas Journal 25:359-368.

Hanson, H.C and W. Whitman. 1938. Characteristics of major grassland types in western North Dakota. Ecological Monographs. Vol. 8:57-114.

Heitschmidt, R. K., K. D. Klement, and M. R. Haferkamp. 2005. Interactive effects of drought and grazing on Northern Great Plains rangelands. Rangeland Ecology and Management 58:11-19.

Hendrickson, J.R., P. S. Johnson, M. A. Liebig, K. K. Sedivec, and G. A. Halvorson. 2016. Use of ecological sites in managing wildlife and livestock: an example with prairie dogs. Rangelands 38(1): 23-28.

Hendrickson, J.R., S.L. Kronberg, and E.J. Scholljegerdes. 2020. Can targeted grazing reduce abundance of invasive perennial grass (Kentucky bluegrass) on native mixed-grass prairie? Rangeland Ecology and Management, 73:547-551.

Higgins, K.F. 1984. Lightning fires in grasslands in North Dakota and in pine-savanna lands in nearby South Dakota and Montana. J. Range Manage. 37:100-103.

Higgins, K.F. 1986. Interpretation and compendium of historical fire accounts in the Northern Great Plains. United States Department of Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service. Resource Publication 161. 39 pages.

High Plains Regional Climate Center, University of Nebraska, 830728 Chase Hall, Lincoln, NE 68583-0728. (http://hprcc.unl.edu)

Hirch, K.L. 1985. Habitat type classification of grasslands and shrublands of southwestern North Dakota. Ph.D. Thesis. ND State University.

Hopkins, D.G., M.D Sweeny, D.R. Kirby, J. L. Richardson. 1991. Effects of revegetation of surficial soil salinity on panspot soils. Journal of Range Management 44(3): 215-219.

Hopkins, D.G., M.D Sweeny, J. L. Richardson. 1991. Dispersive erosion and entisol-panspot genesis in sodium-affected landscapes. Soil Science Society American Journal Volume. 55: 171-177.

Johnson, Sandra. 2015. Reptiles and amphibians of North Dakota. North Dakota Game and Fish Department. 64 pages.

Jordan, N. R., D.L. Larson, and S.C. Huerd. 2008. Soil modification by invasive plants: effects on native and invasive species of mixed-grass prairies. Biological Invasions 10:177-190.

Mader, E., M. Shepherd, M. Vaughan, and S.H. Black. 2011. Attracting native pollinators: protecting North America's bees and butterflies. Accessed at https://xerces.org, May 1, 2017.

Montana Fish, Wildlife and Parks. 2015. Montana state wildlife action plan. 2015. Viewed at https://xerces.org/ on May 1, 2017.

North Dakota Division of Tourism, Accessed on February 25, 2019. Available at https://www.ndtourism.com/sports-recreation

North Dakota Parks and Recreation Department, Accessed on February 25, 2019. Available at http://www.parkrec.nd.gov/recreationareas/recreationareas.html

Palit, R., G. and E.S. DeKeyser. 2022. Impacts and drivers of smooth brome (Bromus inermis Leyes.) invasion in native ecosystems. Plants: 10,3390. http://https://www.mdpi.com/2223-7747/11/10/1340

Palit, R., G. Gramig, and E.S. DeKeyser. 2021. Kentucky bluegrass invasion in the Northern Great Plains and prospective management approaches to mitigate its spread. Plants: 10,817. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants10040817

Printz, J.L. and J.R. Hendrickson. 2015. Impacts of Kentucky bluegrass invasion (Poa pratensis) on ecological processes in the Northern Great Plains. Rangelands 37(6):226-232.

Redmann, Robert E. 1975. Production ecology of grassland plant communities in western North Dakota. Ecological Monographs 45:83-106.

Reeves, J.L., J.D. Derner, M.A. Sanderson, J.R. Hendrickson, S.L. Kronberg, M.K. Petersen, and L.T. Vermeire. 2014. Seasonal weather influences on yearling beef steer production in C3-dominated Northern Great Plains rangeland. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 183:110-117.

Royer, R. A., 2003. Butterflies of North Dakota: an atlas and guide. Minot State University, Minot, ND.

Sanford, R.C. 1970. Skunk bush in the North Dakota badlands: ecology, phytosociology, browse production, and utilization. Ph. D. Thesis. ND State University.

Seabloom, R. 2020. Mammals of North Dakota. North Dakota Institute for Regional Studies, Fargo, ND. 470 pages.

Sedivec, K.D., J.L. Printz. 2014. Ranchers guide to grassland management IV. NDSU Extension Service publication R1707.

South Dakota Dept. of Game, Fish and Parks. 2014. South Dakota wildlife action plan. Wildlife Division Report 2014-03.

Spaeth, K.E., Hayek, M.A., Toledo, D., and Hendrickson, J. 2019. Cool season grass impacts on native mixedgrass prairie species in the Northern Great Plains. America’s Grassland Conference: Working Across Boundaries. The Fifth Biennial Conference on the Conservation of America’s Grasslands. Bismarck, ND. 20-22 August.

Tidwell, D., D.T. Fogarty, and J.R. Weir. 2021. Woody encroachment in grasslands, a guide for understanding risk and vulnerability. Oklahoma State University, Oklahoma Cooperative Extension Service publication E- 1054. 32 pages.

Toledo, D., M. Sanderson, K. Spaeth, J. Hendrickson, and J. Printz. 2014. Extent of Kentucky bluegrass and its effect on native plant species diversity and ecosystem services in the Northern Great Plains of the United State. Invasive Plant Science and Management 7(4): 543-552.

USDA, NRCS. 2021. National range and pasture handbook, (https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detailfull/national/landuse/rangepasture/?cid=stelprdb1043084)

USDA, NRCS. 2006. Land resource regions and major land resource areas of the United States, the Caribbean, and the Pacific Basin. U.S. Department of Agriculture Handbook 296.

USDA, NRCS. National Soil Information System, 100 Centennial Mall North, Room 152, Lincoln, NE 68508- 3866. (https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detail/soils/survey/tools/?cid=nrcs142p2_053552)

USDA, NRCS. National Water & Climate Center, 1201 NE Lloyd Blvd, Suite 802, Portland, OR 97232-1274. (https://www.wcc.nrcs.usda.gov/)

USDA, NRCS. 2001. The PLANTS database, Version 3.1 (http://plants.usda.gov). National Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, LA 70874-4490 USA.

USDA, NRCS, Various published soil surveys.

USDI BLM.1999. Utilization studies and residual measurements. Interagency Technical Reference 1734-3.

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 2015. Endangered and threatened wildlife and plants; designation of critical habitat for the Dakota skipper and Poweshiek skipperling; Vol. 79 No. Final Rule October 1, 2015, 50 CFR Part 17.

Vinton, M.A. and E.M. Goergen. 2006. Plant-soil feedbacks contribute to the persistence of Bromus inermis in tallgrass prairie. Ecosystems 9: 967-976.

Whitman, W.H., H. Hanson, and R. Peterson. 1943. Relation of drought and grazing to North Dakota range lands. North Dakota Agricultural Experimentation Bulletin 340.

Zaczkowski, N. K. 1972. Vascular flora of Billings, Bowman, Golden Valley, and Slope counties, North Dakota. Dissertation, ND State University.

Zimmerman, G. M. 1981. Effects of fire upon selected plant communities in the little Missouri badlands. Thesis, ND State University.

Contributors

ND NRCS: David Dewald, Jonathan Fettig, Jody Forman, Mike Gerbig, Alan Gulsvig, Mark Hayek, Jeanne Heilig, John Kempenich, Chuck Lura, Jeff Printz, Steve Sieler, and Hal Weiser.

Approval

Suzanne Mayne-Kinney, 3/31/2025

Acknowledgments

NRCS would like to acknowledge the United State Forest Service (USFS) and National Park Service (NPS) for access to USFS properties and technical assistance in ESD development. USFS: Jack Dahl, Nickole Dahl, and Chad Prosser.