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Ecological site R066XY026NE

Loamy Overflow

Last updated: 11/18/2024
Accessed: 12/22/2024

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General information

Approved. An approved ecological site description has undergone quality control and quality assurance review. It contains a working state and transition model, enough information to identify the ecological site, and full documentation for all ecosystem states contained in the state and transition model.

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Figure 1. Mapped extent

Areas shown in blue indicate the maximum mapped extent of this ecological site. Other ecological sites likely occur within the highlighted areas. It is also possible for this ecological site to occur outside of highlighted areas if detailed soil survey has not been completed or recently updated.

MLRA notes

Major Land Resource Area (MLRA): 066X–Dakota-Nebraska Eroded Tableland

The Dakota-Nebraska Eroded Tableland (MLRA 66) occurs in north-central Nebraska (56 percent) and south-central South Dakota (44 percent). MLRA 66 is approximately 3.6 million acres and covers all or parts of 12 counties between the two states. The northern border of the MRLA bisects Tripp County, South Dakota, just south of the town of Winner. Valentine is in the northeastern corner of Cherry County, Nebraska and is located on the MLRA’s southwestern border. From there, the MLRA stretches southeast to the northwestern corner of Antelope County, Nebraska and the town of O’Neil, Nebraska in Holt County its southeastern border.

The MLRA occupies a smooth fluvial plain primarily consisting of broad intervalley areas with terraces, river breaks, and local badlands along the well-defined major drainages. The slopes range from nearly level tablelands to steep ridges and drainages. The elevation ranges from 1,970 to 2,950 feet. The Keya Paha, Elkhorn, and the Niobrara Rivers flow through the MLRA. The Niobrara is a designated National Scenic River.

Layers of shaly chalk and limestone marine sediments overlaying the Cretaceous Niobrara Formation make up the bulk of the MLRA, though the western and southwestern portions exhibit surface eolian deposits. The floors of the major drainages are underlain by deposits of alluvial sand and gravel. The dominant soil orders in this MLRA are mesic, ustic or aridic Mollisols and Entisols. Loamy and sandy are the primary soil textures in this landscape.

Twenty-seven percent of the land in this MLRA has been broken out of native prairie and farmed, while 66 percent of the grasslands remain intact. The remaining acres are divided between forest, urban development, and other uses. Livestock grazing, primarily by cattle, is a major industry. Corn, winter wheat, and grain sorghum are the primary commodity crops but a significant number of acres are planted to forage sorghum and alfalfa for harvest as hay. With limited irrigation available, and annual precipitation averaging from 18 inches in the west to 25 inches in the east, crop production is marginal across most of the MLRA.

The historical matrix vegetation type is mixed-grass prairie. Bluestems, prairie sandreed, sideoats grama, and blue grama make up the bulk of the warm-season species. Western wheatgrass, green needlegrass, and needle and thread are the dominant cool-season grasses. Large- and small-patch vegetative communities are found primarily along the riparian zones, on lowland sites, and in closed depressions. Woodlands make up about 3 percent of MLRA 66 and consist primarily of green ash, bur oak, and hackberry. Ponderosa pines can be found on steeper sites in the western portion of the landscape.

Wildlife flourishes in this combination of crop and grassland environments. In a landscape historically occupied by bison herds, white-tailed and mule deer are now the most abundant wild ungulates. Pronghorns also number among the remaining native grazers. A variety of smaller species, including coyote, raccoon, opossum, porcupines, muskrat, beaver, squirrel, prairie dogs, and mink, thrive in the region. Grassland birds, including several upland game birds, are common across the MLRA.

This landscape serves as a backdrop for a disturbance-driven ecosystem, evolving under the influences of herbivory, fire, and variable climate. Historically, these processes created a heterogeneous mosaic of plant communities and structure heights across the region. Any given site in this landscape burned every six to ten years, with most of the MLRA experiencing a six to eight year fire regime. The fires were caused by lightning strikes and were also set by Native Americans, who used fire for warfare, signaling, and to refresh the native grasses. Indigenous inhabitants understood the value of fire as a tool, and that the highly palatable growth following a fire provided excellent forage for their horses and attracted grazing game animals such as bison and elk.

Land use patterns by post-European settlers have greatly altered the historical fire regime, allowing the expansion of woody species. Fragmentation of the native grasslands by conversion to cropland, transportation corridors, and other developments has contributed to disruption of the natural fire regime of this ecosystem. The most common encroaching woody species is eastern redcedar. While eastern redcedar is native to the landscape, the historic population in MLRA 66 was limited to isolated pockets in rugged river drainageways that were protected from wildfire. Widespread plantings of windbreaks with eastern redcedar as a primary component provide a seed source for the aggressive woody plant which further facilitates woody encroachment. Encroachment of native and introduced shrubs and trees into the native grasslands degrades wildlife habit and causes significant forage loss for domestic livestock. Aggressive fire suppression policies have exacerbated this process to the point that shrub and tree encroachment is a major ecological threat to grasslands throughout most of the MLRA.

Classification relationships

►EPA◄
Level IV Ecoregions of the Conterminous United States
43—Northwestern Great Plains:
43i—Keya Paha Tablelands.

►USDA◄
Land Resource Regions and Major Land Resource Areas (USDA-NRCS, 2006)
Land Resource Region: G—Western Great Plains Range and Irrigated Region:
Major Land Resource Area (MLRA): 66 Dakota-Nebraska Eroded Tableland.

Ecological site concept

The Loamy Overflow site occurs on active floodplains and is subject to inundation. Additional moisture is received as run-on originating from higher on the landscape. Rare to frequent flooding redistributes soil and plant materials through erosion and deposition and can locally affect production and species composition. The soil surface textures are silty, silty clay, loamy, clay loam, and fine sandy loam. Slopes range from 0 to 3 percent.

Vegetation in the Reference Plant Community (1.1) consists of a mix of cool- and warm-season grasses. Dominant grasses and grass-likes include big bluestem, little bluestem, western wheatgrass, and Pennsylvania sedge. Forbs are common and diverse. Shrubs include leadplant, western snowberry, and rose. The site is susceptible to invasion of non-native, cool-season grasses, especially Kentucky bluegrass and smooth brome. The majority of the Loamy Overflow site has been converted to croplands.

Associated sites

R066XY036NE	Loamy 18-22 P.Z. The Loamy ecological site is often found adjacent to but on a higher landscape position than Loamy Overflow ecological site.
R066XY066NE	Loamy Terrace The Loamy Terrace ecological site is often found adjacent to but on a higher landscape position than Loamy Overflow ecological site.
R066XY046NE	Subirrigated The Subirrigated ecological site is often found adjacent to but on a lower landscape position than Loamy Overflow ecological site.

R066XY036NE

Loamy 18-22 P.Z.

The Loamy ecological site is often found adjacent to but on a higher landscape position than Loamy Overflow ecological site.

R066XY066NE

Loamy Terrace

The Loamy Terrace ecological site is often found adjacent to but on a higher landscape position than Loamy Overflow ecological site.

R066XY046NE

Subirrigated

The Subirrigated ecological site is often found adjacent to but on a lower landscape position than Loamy Overflow ecological site.

Similar sites

R066XY066NE	Loamy Terrace The Loamy Terrace and Loamy Overflow ecological sites occur on soils with similar surface textures. The Loamy Overflow ecological site is found on floodplains while Loamy Terrace ecological sites are located on a higher landscape position.

R066XY066NE

Loamy Terrace

The Loamy Terrace and Loamy Overflow ecological sites occur on soils with similar surface textures. The Loamy Overflow ecological site is found on floodplains while Loamy Terrace ecological sites are located on a higher landscape position.

Figure 2. Block diagram of the Loamy Overflow site in MLRA 66.

Table 1. Dominant plant species

Tree	(1) Fraxinus pennsylvanica (2) Acer negundo
Shrub	(1) Symphoricarpos (2) Amorpha canescens
Herbaceous	(1) Andropogon gerardii (2) Pascopyrum smithii

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Physiographic features

The Loamy Overflow ecological site occurs on nearly level areas along drainageways that receive additional water from overflow of intermittent streams or runoff from adjacent slopes.

Table 2. Representative physiographic features

Landforms	(1) Flood plain (2) Paleoterrace (3) Swale
Runoff class	Negligible to low
Flooding duration	Very brief (4 to 48 hours) to brief (2 to 7 days)
Flooding frequency	Rare to frequent
Ponding frequency	None
Elevation	1,900 – 3,000 ft
Slope	3%
Water table depth	30 – 60 in
Aspect	Aspect is not a significant factor

Climatic features

MLRA 66 is considered to have a continental climate with cold winters and hot summers, low humidity, light rainfall, and much sunshine. Extremes in temperature may also abound. The climate is the result of this MLRA’s location near the geographic center of North America. There are few natural barriers on the northern Great Plains and the winds move freely across the plains and account for rapid changes in temperature.

Annual precipitation ranges from 18 to 25 inches per year. The normal average annual temperature is about 48°F. January is the coldest month with average temperatures ranging from about 19°F (Bonesteel, SD) to about 23°F (Ainsworth, NE). July is the warmest month with temperatures averaging from about 73°F (Harrington, SD) to about 75°F (Gregory, SD). The range of normal average monthly temperatures between the coldest and warmest months is about 54°F. This large annual range attests to the continental nature of the climate this area. Hourly winds average about ten miles per hour annually,
ranging from about 11 miles per hour during the spring to about nine miles per hour during the summer. Daytime winds are generally stronger than nighttime and occasional strong storms may bring brief periods of high winds with gusts to more than 50 miles per hour.

Growth of native cool-season plants begins mid to late March and continues to late June. Native warm-season plants begin growth in early May and continue to late August. Green-up of cool-season plants may occur in September and October when adequate soil moisture is present.

Table 3. Representative climatic features

Frost-free period (characteristic range)	110-127 days
Freeze-free period (characteristic range)	131-145 days
Precipitation total (characteristic range)	21-26 in
Frost-free period (actual range)	69-130 days
Freeze-free period (actual range)	79-148 days
Precipitation total (actual range)	21-27 in
Frost-free period (average)	110 days
Freeze-free period (average)	128 days
Precipitation total (average)	24 in

Characteristic range

Actual range

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Figure 3. Monthly precipitation range

Characteristic range

Actual range

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Figure 4. Monthly minimum temperature range

Characteristic range

Actual range

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Figure 5. Monthly maximum temperature range

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Figure 6. Monthly average minimum and maximum temperature

Figure 7. Annual precipitation pattern

Figure 8. Annual average temperature pattern

Climate stations used

(1) HARRINGTON [USC00393574], Tuthill, SD
(2) MISSION [USC00395620], Mission, SD
(3) MISSION 14 S [USC00395638], Mission, SD
(4) VALENTINE MILLER FLD [USW00024032], Valentine, NE
(5) GREGORY [USC00393452], Gregory, SD
(6) SPRINGVIEW [USC00258090], Springview, NE
(7) AINSWORTH [USC00250050], Ainsworth, NE
(8) FAIRFAX #2 [USC00392822], Fairfax, SD
(9) BUTTE [USC00251365], Butte, NE
(10) O NEILL [USC00256290], Oneill, NE

Soil features

The soils correlated to the Loamy Overflow ecological site are deep or very deep, well and moderately well drained soils that formed in alluvium. Surface soil textures are silt loam, fine sandy loam, or silty clay loam. Soils have a darker surface layer that ranges from three to fifteen inches thick. These sites receive additional water from overflow of intermittent streams or runoff from adjacent slopes. Available water capacity is typically high while permeability is moderately slow to moderately rapid. The general fertility level and organic content of these soils is medium to high.

This site should show slight to no evidence of rills, wind scoured areas, or pedestalled plants. Water flow paths are broken, irregular in appearance, or discontinuous with numerous debris dams or vegetative barriers. The soil surface is stable and intact. Sub-surface soil layers are not restrictive to water movement and root penetration. When vegetative cover is reduced water erosion is a resource concern. In the absence of adequate cover, headcuts may develop.

Cass, Bridgeport, and Onita are the primary soil series correlated to this site. More information can be found in the various soil survey reports. Contact the local USDA Service Center for soil survey reports that include more detail specific to your location or visit Web Soil Survey (https://websoilsurvey.sc.egov.usda.gov).

Figure 9. Onita series profile

Table 4. Representative soil features

Parent material	(1) Alluvium
Surface texture	(1) Silt loam (2) Fine sandy loam (3) Silty clay loam
Drainage class	Somewhat poorly drained to well drained
Permeability class	Moderately slow to moderately rapid
Depth to restrictive layer	25 – 60 in
Soil depth	36 – 60 in
Surface fragment cover <=3"	2%
Surface fragment cover >3"	Not specified
Available water capacity (Depth not specified)	3.9 – 8 in
Calcium carbonate equivalent (Depth not specified)	15%
Electrical conductivity (Depth not specified)	2 mmhos/cm
Sodium adsorption ratio (Depth not specified)	2
Soil reaction (1:1 water) (Depth not specified)	5.6 – 8.4
Subsurface fragment volume <=3" (Depth not specified)	4%
Subsurface fragment volume >3" (Depth not specified)	Not specified

Ecological dynamics

The Loamy Overflow ecological sites developed under Northern Great Plains climatic conditions, grazing by bison and other large herbivores, and sporadic natural or human-caused wildfire. This continues to be a resilient, disturbance-driven site with herbivory, fire, and variable climate being the primary disturbances. Changes occur in the plant communities due to short-term weather variations, impacts of native and exotic plant and animal species, and the timing, intensity, and frequency of grazing events.

One of the primary impacts to the Loamy Overflow site introduced by European settlers was season-long, continuous grazing by domestic livestock. This management practice causes the repeated removal of the growing point and excessive defoliation of the leaf area of individual warm-season tallgrasses. The resulting reduction in the ability of the plants to harvest sunlight depletes the root reserves, subsequently decreasing the root mass. This negatively impacts the ability of plants to compete for nutrients, resulting in declining plant vigor and eventual mortality. The space created in the vegetative community is then occupied by a species that evades the negative grazing impacts by growing season adaptation (such as cool-season), a shorter structure, a growing point that remains near the soil surface, or a reduced palatability mechanism.

This site includes draws and drainageways that were historically protected from wildfire and grazing and therefore supported a woody community rather than a grassland. With fire suppression, these naturally occurring, native trees encroach from the draws into the main body of the ecological site. This encroachment can shift site characteristics such as plant community, litter, and infiltration of precipitation. These shifts can alter the site dynamics and site potential.

Interpretations are primarily based on the Reference Plant Community (1.1) and have been determined by study of rangeland relic areas, areas protected from excessive disturbance, and grazing study areas. Trends in plant community dynamics have been interpreted from heavily grazed to lightly grazed areas, seasonal-use pastures, and historical accounts. Plant communities, states, transitional pathways, and thresholds have been determined through similar studies and experience.

The State and Transition Model (STM) is depicted below and includes a Reference State (1), a Native/Invaded Grass State (2), an Invaded Grass State (3), a Woody Invaded State (4), a Sodbusted State (5), a Lower Woody Draw State (6), and an Upper Woody Draw State (7). Each state represents the crossing of a major ecological threshold due to the alteration of the functional dynamic properties of the ecosystem. The primary properties observed to determine this change are soil stability, vegetative communities, and the hydrologic cycle. Each state may have one or more plant communities that fluctuate in species composition and abundance within the normal parameters of the state. Within each state, communities may degrade or recover in response to natural and man caused disturbances such as variation in the degree and timing of herbivory, presence or absence of fire, and climatic and local fluctuations in the precipitation regime. The processes that cause the movement between the states and communities are discussed in more detail in the state and community descriptions following the diagram.

State and transition model

Custom diagram

Standard diagram

Figure 10. State and Transition Model Diagram. MLRA 66, Loamy Overflow Ecological Site.

Figure 11. State and Transition Model Diagram Legend. MLRA 66, Loamy Overflow Ecological Site.

Figure 12. State and Transition Model Diagram Woody Draw States. MLRA 66, Loamy Overflow Ecological Site.

More interactive model formats are also available. View Interactive Models

More interactive model formats are also available. View Interactive Models
Click on state and transition labels to scroll to the respective text

T1A	-	Invasion of non-native cool-season grasses, long term (>10 years) seasonal grazing in summer, or rotational grazing with inadequate growing season recovery periods. Non-use with no fire.
T1B	-	Coniferous woody encroachment with no prescribed burning or woody species management.
T1C	-	Tillage to facilitate production agriculture.
T1D	-	Flooding, deciduous woody encroachment with no prescribed burning or woody species management.
T1E	-	Deciduous woody encroachment with no prescribed burning or woody species management.
R2A	-	Long-term (> 15 years) prescribed grazing in spring or spring and fall. This restoration may not be feasible.
T2A	-	Continued invasion of non-native cool-season grasses facilitated by seasonal grazing in summer, continuous season long grazing, or non-use with no fire.
T2B	-	Coniferous woody encroachment with no prescribed burning or woody species management.
T2C	-	Tillage to facilitate production agriculture.
T2D	-	Flooding, deciduous woody encroachment with prescribed grazing and no prescribed burning or woody species management.
T2E	-	Deciduous woody encroachment with no prescribed burning or woody species management.
T3A	-	Coniferous woody encroachment with no prescribed burning or woody species management.
T3B	-	Tillage to facilitate production agriculture.
T3C	-	Flooding, deciduous woody encroachment with prescribed grazing and no prescribed burning or woody species management.
T3D	-	Deciduous woody encroachment with no prescribed burning or woody species management.
R4A	-	Prescribed burning, wildfire, timber harvest, brush management.
R4B	-	Prescribed burning, wildfire, timber harvest, brush management.
R4C	-	Prescribed burning, wildfire, timber harvest, brush management.
R4D	-	Prescribed burning, wildfire, timber harvest, brush management.
R4E	-	Prescribed burning, wildfire, timber harvest, and brush management
R4F	-	Prescribed burning, wildfire, timber harvest, brush management.
T5A	-	Coniferous woody encroachment with no prescribed burning or woody species management.
T5B	-	Flooding, deciduous woody encroachment with prescribed grazing and no prescribed burning or woody species management.
T5C	-	Deciduous woody encroachment with no prescribed burning or woody species management.
R6A	-	No flooding with prescribed burning, wildfire, timber harvest, brush management and prescribed grazing in mid-summer.
R6B	-	No flooding with prescribed burning, wildfire, timber harvest, brush management and continuous season-long or continuous season grazing.
R6C	-	No flooding with prescribed burning, wildfire, timber harvest, brush management and continuous season-long or continuous season grazing.
T6A	-	Eastern redcedar encroachment with no prescribed burning or woody species management.
R6D	-	No flooding with prescribed burning, wildfire, timber harvest, brush management and grazing in mid-summer.
R7A	-	Prescribed burning, wildfire, timber harvest, brush management followed by long-term prescribed grazing.
R7B	-	Prescribed burning, wildfire, timber harvest, brush management.
R7C	-	Prescribed burning, wildfire, timber harvest, brush management.
T7A	-	Coniferous woody encroachment with no prescribed burning or woody species management.
R7D	-	Prescribed burning, wildfire, timber harvest, brush management.

State 1 submodel, plant communities

1.1. Reference Community

1.2. At-Risk Community

1.1A	-	Grazing or haying with inadequate growing season recovery periods.
1.2A	-	Prescribed grazing or haying with adequate growing season recovery periods.

State 2 submodel, plant communities

2.1. Native/Invasive Grass Community

State 3 submodel, plant communities

3.1. Invaded Grass Community

State 4 submodel, plant communities

4.1. Invaded Woody Community

State 5 submodel, plant communities

5.1. Reseeded Native Grass Community

5.2. Seeded Pasture Community

5.3. Natural Reclamation Community

State 6 submodel, plant communities

6.1. Plains Cottonwood (Populus deltoides ssp monilifera) Regeneration Community

6.2. Mature Plains Cottonwood (Populus deltoides ssp monolifera), No Regeneration Community

6.3. Immature Green Ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica) Community

6.4. Scattered Mature Green Ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica) Community

6.5. Green Ash-Boxelder-Common Hackberry (Fraxinus pennsylvanica-Acer negundo-Celtis occidentalis) Regeneration Community

6.6. Green Ash-Box Elder (Fraxinus pennsylvanica-Acer negundo) No Regeneration Community

Communities 1 and 5 (additional pathways)

6.1. Plains Cottonwood (Populus deltoides ssp monilifera) Regeneration Community

6.5. Green Ash-Boxelder-Common Hackberry (Fraxinus pennsylvanica-Acer negundo-Celtis occidentalis) Regeneration Community

6.1A	-	No flooding with continuous seasonal or continuous season long grazing.
6.1B	-	No flooding with long-term prescribed grazing.
6.2A	-	Flooding and prescribed grazing with seedling establishment.
6.3A	-	Flooding with prescribed grazing.
6.3B	-	Long-term absence of flooding with continuous season long or continuous seasonal grazing or with heavy wildlife browsing.
6.3C	-	Long-term absence of flooding with prescribed grazing.
6.5A	-	Flooding with prescribed grazing.
6.5B	-	Long-term absence of flooding with continuous season long or continuous seasonal grazing or with heavy wildlife browsing.
6.6A	-	Long-term absence of flooding with continuous season long, continuous seasonal grazing.

State 7 submodel, plant communities

7.1. Seedling Green Ash-Bur Oak (Fraxinus pennsylvanica-Quercus macrocarpa) Community

7.2. Immature Green Ash-Bur Oak (Fraxinus pennsylvanica-Quercus macrocarpa) Community

7.3. Mature Green Ash-Bur Oak (Fraxinus pennsylvanica-Quercus macrocarpa) Community

7.4. Scattered Mature Green Ash-Bur Oak (Fraxinus pennsylvanica-Quercus macrocarpa), No Regeneration Community

7.5. Green Ash-Bur Oak (Fraxinus pennsylvanica-Quercus macrocarpa)/Immature Eastern Redcedar-Ponderosa Pine (Juniperus virginiana-Pinus ponderosa) Community

7.1A	-	Time with moderate or light prescribed grazing and no fire.
7.2A	-	Time with moderate or light prescribed grazing and no fire.
7.3A	-	Time with continuous season long or continuous seasonal grazing and no fire.
7.3B	-	Coniferous woody encroachment with no fire or brush management.
7.4A	-	Coniferous woody encroachment with no fire or brush management.
7.5A	-	Prescribed burning, brush management for coniferous woody species removal.
7.5B	-	Prescribed burning, brush management for coniferous woody species removal.

State 1
Reference State

The Reference State (1) describes the range of vegetative communities that occur on the Loamy Overflow ecological site where the range of natural variability under historic conditions and disturbance regimes is mostly intact. The Reference State developed under the combined influences of climatic conditions, periodic fire activity, grazing by large herbivores, and impacts from small mammals and insects. High perennial grass cover and production allows for increased soil moisture retention, vegetative production and overall soil quality. The Reference State includes the Reference Community (1.1) and the At-Risk Community (1.2). The Reference Community serves as a description of the native plant community that naturally occurs on the site when the natural disturbance regimes are intact or closely mimicked by management practices. The At-Risk Community (1.2) is the community phase that results from management decisions that are unfavorable for a healthy Reference Community. Both community phases are susceptible to eastern redcedar invasion and subject to crossing a threshold into the Invaded Woody State(4).

Dominant plant species

western wheatgrass (Pascopyrum smithii), grass
green needlegrass (Nassella viridula), grass
porcupinegrass (Hesperostipa spartea), grass
big bluestem (Andropogon gerardii), grass
little bluestem (Schizachyrium scoparium), grass

Community 1.1
Reference Community

Interpretations are primarily based on the Reference or the Big Bluestem-Western Wheatgrass-Green Needlegrass (Andropogon gerardii-Pascopyrum smithii-Nassella viridula) Community (1.1). This plant community serves as a description of the native plant community that occurs on the site when the natural disturbance regimes are intact or are closely mimicked by management practices. This phase is dynamic, with fluid relative abundance and spatial boundaries between the dominant structural vegetative groups. These fluctuations are primarily driven by different responses of the species to changes in precipitation timing and abundance, and to fire and grazing events. This site developed with grazing by large herbivores and is well suited for grazing by domestic livestock. The Reference Community is dominated by cool-season, rhizomatous and bunchgrasses. Warm-season tall- and midgrasses are also significant in the community. The major grasses include big bluestem, green needlegrass, and western wheatgrass. Other grasses include porcupinegrass, switchgrass, little bluestem, and sideoats grama. Common forbs include American licorice, American vetch, asters, and goldenrod. Typical shrub species include leadplant, western snowberry, and rose. The potential vegetation is 80 to 90 percent grasses or grass-like plants, 5 to 10 percent forbs, 2 to 7 percent shrubs, and 0 to 2 percent trees. The potential is relatively low for tree establishment or regeneration. Natural fire played a significant role in the succession of this site by limiting the extent of eastern redcedar. Wildfires have been actively controlled in recent times, allowing eastern redcedar encroachment. This plant community can be found on areas that are managed with prescribed grazing, prescribed burning, and may be found on areas receiving occasional periods of short-term rest. This resilient community is well adapted to the Northern Great Plains climatic conditions. This community is drought tolerant due to high plant species diversity and the resulting varied root structures. Individual species can vary greatly in production depending on the timing and amount of precipitation, and temperature fluctuations. Plant diversity promotes strong tolerance to drought, site and soil stability, a functional hydrologic cycle, a high degree of biotic integrity, and high soil quality.

Dominant plant species

big bluestem (Andropogon gerardii), grass
green needlegrass (Nassella viridula), grass
porcupinegrass (Hesperostipa spartea), grass
western wheatgrass (Pascopyrum smithii), grass

Figure 13. Annual production by plant type (representative values) or group (midpoint values)

Table 5. Annual production by plant type

Plant type	Low (lb/acre)	Representative value (lb/acre)	High (lb/acre)
Grass/Grasslike	1970	2958	3607
Forb	165	255	375
Shrub/Vine	65	153	250
Tree	0	34	68
Total	2200	3400	4300

Figure 14. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). NE6641, Eroded Tableland, lowland cool-season/warm-season codominant.

Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun	Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec
J	F	M	A	M	J	J	A	S	O	N	D
		5	12	20	25	19	11	5	3

Community 1.2
At-Risk Community

Figure 15. Loamy Overflow Ecological Site, At-Risk Community (1.2), Knox County, Nebraska.

The At-Risk or Western Wheatgrass-Green Needlegrass (Pascopyrum smithii-Nassella viridula) Community (1.2) develops under continuous season-long grazing or rotational grazing with inadequate growing season recovery periods. Repetitive haying without allowing adequate growing season recovery will also cause the shift to this plant community. This community signals a significant loss of production and a major shift in species composition. Warm-season shortgrasses and cool-season grasses increase while warm-season tall- and midgrasses decrease. The composition of the forb component remains diverse, while the potential for encroachment by woody species increases due to the presence of fewer deep-rooted species and a corresponding reduced fuel load to carry fire. Compared to the Reference Community (1.1), western wheatgrass has increased and big bluestem has decreased. Other grasses and grass-likes present include green needlegrass, little bluestem, dropseed, and sedges. The reduction in the amount of warm-season, tall- and midgrasses has negatively impacted energy flow and nutrient cycling. Water infiltration is reduced due to loss of the deep rooted tallgrasses. Without a management change, this community is at-risk to cross a major threshold to the Native/Invaded Grass State (2).

Dominant plant species

western wheatgrass (Pascopyrum smithii), grass
green needlegrass (Nassella viridula), grass

Figure 16. Annual production by plant type (representative values) or group (midpoint values)

Table 6. Annual production by plant type

Plant type	Low (lb/acre)	Representative value (lb/acre)	High (lb/acre)
Grass/Grasslike	1620	2309	2745
Forb	130	202	300
Shrub/Vine	50	162	300
Tree	0	27	55
Total	1800	2700	3400

Figure 17. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). NE6640, Eroded Tableland, cool-season dominant, warm-season subdominant.

Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun	Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec
J	F	M	A	M	J	J	A	S	O	N	D
		5	8	25	30	15	10	2	5

Pathway 1.1A
Community 1.1 to 1.2

A shift from the Reference Community (1.1) to the At-Risk Community (1.2) occurs with continuous season-long grazing, rotational grazing with inadequate growing season recovery, or repetitive haying.

Pathway 1.2A
Community 1.2 to 1.1

Prescribed grazing with adequate growing season recovery periods will return the At-Risk Community (1.2) to the Reference Community (1.1). Prescribed burning will accelerate this process.

State 2
Native/Invaded Grass State

The Native/Invaded Grass State (2) has been degraded from the Reference State (1) and much of the warm-season tall- and midgrass component has been replaced by cool-season grasses. Non-native cool-season grasses have invaded the plant community and are more than 15 percent of the plant community composition by weight. The transition from the Reference State occurs with repeated seasonal grazing during the summer or under extended periods (more than ten years) of non-use with no fire. A thick litter layer develops with extended periods of non-use. This thatch layer favors cool-season species and the invasion of non-native, cool-season grasses, especially Kentucky bluegrass. Dominant grasses include Kentucky bluegrass, western wheatgrass, needle and thread, and green needlegrass. Cuman ragweed, scurfpeas, white sagebrush, and verbenas are common forbs. Shrubs include western snowberry, rose, and plains prickly pear. The loss of warm-season, tall- and midgrasses negatively impacts energy flow and nutrient cycling. Water infiltration is reduced due to the shallow root system and rapid runoff characteristics of this plant community. As this management continues, the plant community will become dominated by non-native cool-season grasses, sedges, and annuals causing the transition to the Invaded Grass State (3). The Native/Invaded Grass State includes the Native/Invasive Grass Community (2.1).

Dominant plant species

western wheatgrass (Pascopyrum smithii), grass
blue grama (Bouteloua gracilis), grass
Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis), grass

Community 2.1
Native/Invasive Grass Community

In the Native/Invasive Grass or Western Wheatgrass-Kentucky Bluegrass (Pascopyrum smithii-Poa pratensis) Community (2.1) native, cool-season bunchgrasses have decreased while warm-season tall- and midgrasses have been reduced to remnant populations. Non-native cool-season grasses have become established and are a significant proportion of the plant community. This change in the plant composition typically occurs with either continuous, season-long or seasonal grazing in the summer, but also develops with long-term absence of the natural processes of herbivory and fire. Initially, the dominant grasses include western wheatgrass and Kentucky bluegrass. Other grasses include green needlegrass and prairie Junegrass. Sedges flourish in the understory. Dominant forbs include Cuman ragweed, scurfpeas, white sagebrush, and verbenas. Shrubs include snowberry, rose, and plains pricklypear. Kentucky bluegrass and smooth brome have become established on the site. As the management which caused the transition to this state continues, non-native cool-season grasses will increase. Cool, moist climatic conditions, as well as nonuse with no fire, tend to increase the proportion of Kentucky bluegrass in the plant community but it can also increase with heavy grazing. Compared to the Reference Community (1.1), plant diversity has declined. Soil erosion remains low, but infiltration has decreased and runoff has increased. Soil health is affected by reduced efficiency in the nutrient, mineral, and hydrologic cycles as a result of decreases in rooting depths. Total annual vegetative production declines significantly. When Kentucky bluegrass is dominant due to nonuse with no fire, the increasing thatch layer inhibits water infiltration and increases runoff. This plant community is resistant to change, and if disturbed, it is resilient. Without a change in management, the plant community will lose a majority of the native grasses and transition to the Invaded Grass State (3).

Dominant plant species

western wheatgrass (Pascopyrum smithii), grass
Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis), grass
green needlegrass (Nassella viridula), grass

Figure 18. Annual production by plant type (representative values) or group (midpoint values)

Table 7. Annual production by plant type

Plant type	Low (lb/acre)	Representative value (lb/acre)	High (lb/acre)
Grass/Grasslike	1560	1813	2020
Shrub/Vine	220	375	550
Forb	120	250	400
Tree	0	62	130
Total	1900	2500	3100

Figure 19. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). NE6640, Eroded Tableland, cool-season dominant, warm-season subdominant.

Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun	Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec
J	F	M	A	M	J	J	A	S	O	N	D
		5	8	25	30	15	10	2	5

State 3
Invaded Grass State

The Invaded Grass State (3) transitions from the Native/Invaded Grass State (2) when non-native cool-season grasses dominate the site. In this state, non-native cool-season grasses are more than 30 percent of the plant community composition by weight. Smooth brome tends to dominate the site when the site is subject to long term heavy grazing. Kentucky bluegrass tends to dominate the site when the site is unused and unburned causing a thick layer of thatch which effectively prevents establishment of other plants. The loss of warm-season, tall- and midgrasses and the increase of non-native cool-season grasses has negatively impacted energy flow and nutrient cycling. Water infiltration is reduced due to the shallow root system and rapid runoff characteristics of the current plant community. Long-term (more than 15 years) prescribed grazing which includes concentrated grazing in the spring and fall and no grazing during the summer months may restore the plant community to the Native/Invaded State (2). The feasibility of this restoration depends upon the amount of native grasses remaining in the plant community. The fewer the native grasses present, the less feasible the restoration. The Invaded Grass State includes the Invaded Grass Community (3.1).

Dominant plant species

Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis), grass
cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum), grass

Community 3.1
Invaded Grass Community

The Invaded Grass or Kentucky Bluegrass-Cheatgrass (Poa pratensis-Bromus tectorum) Community (3.1) developed with heavy, long-term, continuous season long grazing or heavy, long-term, continuous seasonal grazing during the summer months. It can also develop when grazing and fire continue to be absent from the land. The plant community is dominated by non-native cool-season grasses, typically Kentucky bluegrass, smooth brome, and annual brome grasses. Western wheatgrass, needle and thread, or other native cool-season grasses may be present. Forbs present typically include common mullein, Cuman ragweed, slimflower scurfpea, silverleaf Indian breadroot, stiff goldenrod, Missouri goldenrod, white sagebrush, and swamp verbena. As compared to the Reference Community (1.1) infiltration is moderately reduced while runoff has increased. Soil erosion is low. Plant diversity is very low. Production can be high when this plant community is dominated by smooth brome and managed as pastureland with prescribed grazing, herbaceous weed control, and fertilization. However, the high production is offset by the early maturation of smooth brome which results in palatable forage for a relatively brief period of time. This plant community is resistant to change.

Dominant plant species

smooth brome (Bromus inermis), grass
Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis), grass

Figure 20. Annual production by plant type (representative values) or group (midpoint values)

Table 8. Annual production by plant type

Plant type	Low (lb/acre)	Representative value (lb/acre)	High (lb/acre)
Grass/Grasslike	820	1335	1925
Forb	165	298	450
Shrub/Vine	15	51	90
Tree	0	17	35
Total	1000	1701	2500

Figure 21. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). NE6639, Eroded Tableland, lowland cool-season dominant.

Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun	Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec
J	F	M	A	M	J	J	A	S	O	N	D
0	0	5	13	28	28	12	5	6	3	0	0

State 4
Invaded Woody State

The threshold to the Invaded Woody State (4) is crossed once the tree canopy cover from coniferous trees reaches 15 percent with an average tree height exceeding five feet. Woody species have encroached due to the lack of prescribed fire and other brush management practices. Typical ecological impacts are a loss of native grasses, reduced diversity of functional and structural groups, reduced forage production, and reduced soil quality. The Invaded Woody State includes the Invaded Woody Community (4.1). Prescribed burning, wildfire, timber harvest and brush management will move this state toward a grass dominated state. Land that transitioned to the Invaded Woody State from the Native/Invaded Grass State (2), Invaded Grass State (3), or Sodbusted State (5) cannot be restored to Reference State (1) through removal of woody species as the native plant community, soils, and hydrologic function have been too severely impacted for that restoration to occur.

Dominant plant species

eastern redcedar (Juniperus virginiana), tree
ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa), tree
blue grama (Bouteloua gracilis), grass
western wheatgrass (Pascopyrum smithii), grass
Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis), grass

Community 4.1
Invaded Woody Community

The Invaded Woody or Eastern Redcedar (Juniperus virginiana) Community (4.1) has at least 15 percent canopy cover of eastern redcedar. Additional woody cover from deciduous trees and shrubs may be present. In the western portion of the MLRA ponderosa pine may also occur. In the absence of fire and brush management, this ecological site is very susceptible to eastern redcedar seedling invasion, especially when adjacent to a seed source. Eastern redcedar can eventually dominate the site resulting in a closed canopy monoculture which drastically reduces forage production and which has limited value for either livestock grazing or wildlife habitat. With long-term fire suppression, this plant community will develop extensive ladder fuels which can lead to a removal of most tree species with a wildfire. With properly managed intensive grazing, encroachment of deciduous trees will typically be minimal; however, this will not impact encroachment of coniferous species. The herbaceous component decreases proportionately in relation to the percent canopy cover, with the reduction being greater under a coniferous overstory. Eastern red cedar control can usually be accomplished with prescribed burning while the trees are six feet tall or less and fine fuel production is greater than 1,500 pounds per acres. Larger red cedars can also be controlled with prescribed burning, but successful application requires the use of specifically designed ignition and holding techniques (https://www.hoesscanyonsburninggroup.com). Resprouting brush must be chemically treated immediately after mechanical removal to achieve effective treatment. The forb component will initially increase following tree removal. To prevent return to a woody dominated community, ongoing brush management such as hand cutting, chemical spot treatments, or periodic prescribed burning is required . If this plant community persists long enough before treatment with fire or other woody species management, the resulting herbaceous community may be dominated by pioneer species and an abundance of cheatgrass. This plant community is resistant to change and resilient given normal disturbances. Total annual production during an average year varies significantly, depending on the plant community present prior to encroachment and the percentage of canopy cover.

Dominant plant species

eastern redcedar (Juniperus virginiana), tree
blue grama (Bouteloua gracilis), grass
western wheatgrass (Pascopyrum smithii), grass
Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis), grass

State 5
Sodbusted State

The threshold to the Sodbusted State (7) is crossed as a result of mechanical disturbance to facilitate production agriculture. If farming operations are suspended, the site can be seeded to a mixture of native grasses and forbs, which will result in the Reseeded Native Grass Community (5.1), seeded to a tame pasture forage mixture, the Seeded Pasture Community (5.2), or abandoned, the Natural Reclamation Community (5.3). Permanent alterations of the soil community and the hydrologic cycle make restoration to the Reference State (1) extremely difficult, if not impossible. Formation of a compacted plowpan in the soil profile is likely.

Community 5.1
Reseeded Native Grass Community

The Reseeded Native Grass Community (5.1) does not contain native remnants and plant composition and annual production vary considerably depending upon the seed mixture, the degree of soil erosion, the age of the stand, and past grazing management. Native range and seeded grasslands are ecologically different and should be managed separately. Factors such as functional group, species, stand density, and improved varieties all impact the production level and palatability of the seedings. Species diversity is often limited, and when grazed in conjunction with native rangelands, uneven forage utilization may occur. Total annual production during an average year varies significantly depending upon precipitation, management, and grass species seeded. Prescribed grazing including appropriate utilization levels, adequate growing-season recovery periods, and timing of grazing that favor the productivity, health, and vigor of the seeded species is required to maintain this community. Periodic prescribed burning and brush management may also be needed.

Community 5.2
Seeded Pasture Community

The Seeded Pasture Community (5.2) contains no native remnants and plant composition and annual production vary considerably depending upon the extent of soil erosion, the species seeded, the quality of the stand that was established, the age of the stand, and management of the stand since establishment. There are several factors that make seeded tame pasture a different grazing resource than native rangeland and land seeded to a native grass mixture. Factors such as species selected, stand density, improved varieties, and harvest efficiency all impact production levels and palatability. Species diversity on seeded tame pasture is often limited to a few species. When seeded pasture and native rangelands or seeded pasture and seeded rangeland are in the same grazing unit, uneven forage utilization will occur. Improve forage utilization and stand longevity by managing this community separately from native rangelands or land seeded to native grass species. Total annual production during an average year varies significantly depending on the level of management and species seeded. Improved varieties of warm-season or cool-season grasses are recommended for optimum forage production. Fertilization, weed management, and prescribed grazing including appropriate utilization levels, adequate growing-season recovery periods, and timing of grazing that favor the productivity, health, and vigor of the seeded species are required to maintain this community. Periodic prescribed burning and brush management may also be needed.

Community 5.3
Natural Reclamation Community

The Natural Reclamation Community (5.3) consists of annual and perennial forbs and less desirable grasses. These sites have been farmed and abandoned without being reseeded. Soil organic matter and carbon reserves are reduced, soil structure is changed, and a plowpan or compacted layer can form, which decreases water infiltration. Residual synthetic chemicals may remain from farming operations. In early successional stages, this community is not stable. The hazard of erosion is a resource concern. Total annual production during an average year varies significantly depending on the successional stage of the plant community and any management applied to the system.

State 6
Lower Woody Draw State

The Lower Woody Draw State (6) is a very dynamic state that occurs when deciduous trees encroach from lower portions of drainages contained within the site. The dominant woody species are deciduous trees and shrubs but coniferous species may be present. Grazing regimes, flooding, and lack of fire play major roles in the dynamics and spatial boundaries of the various plant communities. The Lower Woody Draw State includes the Plains Cottonwood (Populus deltoides ssp monolifera) Regeneration Community (6.1), the Mature Cottonwood (Populus deltoides) No Regeneration Community (6.2), the Immature Green Ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica) Community (6.3), the Scattered Mature Green Ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica) Community (6.4), the Green Ash-Box Elder-Hackberry (Fraxinus pennsylvanica-Acer negundo-Celtis occidentalis) Regeneration Community (6.5),6 and the Green Ash-Box Elder (Fraxinus pennsylvanica-Acer negundo) No Regeneration Community (6.6).

Dominant plant species

plains cottonwood (Populus deltoides ssp. monilifera), tree
green ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica), tree
boxelder (Acer negundo), tree
common hackberry (Celtis occidentalis), tree
chokecherry (Prunus virginiana), shrub
American plum (Prunus americana), shrub
western snowberry (Symphoricarpos occidentalis), shrub
western wheatgrass (Pascopyrum smithii), grass
big bluestem (Andropogon gerardii), grass
green needlegrass (Nassella viridula), grass
Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis), grass

Community 6.1
Plains Cottonwood (Populus deltoides ssp monilifera) Regeneration Community

The Plains Cottonwood (Populus deltoides ssp. monilifera) Regeneration Community (6.1) typically occurs after a flooding event with prescribed grazing. Flooding, and the accompanying scouring of the soil surface, reduces herbaceous competition and provides a suitable site for plains cottonwood establishment and regeneration. Prescribed grazing with light stocking rates is necessary to prevent grazing of sapling cottonwoods. Growth stages of trees include seedling, sapling, and immature. The herbaceous understory will still be productive as light still infiltrates the tree canopy. Understory shrubs establish, primarily American plum, chokecherry, and western snowberry. However, other species, including silver buffaloberry and currant can establish and dominate the shrub layer.

Dominant plant species

plains cottonwood (Populus deltoides ssp. monilifera), tree
western snowberry (Symphoricarpos occidentalis), shrub
American plum (Prunus americana), shrub
chokecherry (Prunus virginiana), shrub
big bluestem (Andropogon gerardii), grass
green needlegrass (Nassella viridula), grass
western wheatgrass (Pascopyrum smithii), grass

Community 6.2
Mature Plains Cottonwood (Populus deltoides ssp monolifera), No Regeneration Community

The Mature Plains Cottonwood, No Regeneration Community (6.2) develops over time in the absence of flooding with continuous season-long grazing or continuous seasonal grazing. Mature plains cottonwood dominate the tree overstory but tree regeneration is not occurring due to the lack of flooding and the browsing and grazing of seedlings and saplings. The type of grazing that limits tree regeneration also reduces the amount of native herbaceous species allowing invasion of non-native grasses such as Kentucky bluegrass and smooth brome. Native forbs such as American licorice, aster, white sagebrush, goldenrod and Cuman ragweed are common. Introduced forbs such as Canada thistle, leafy spurge, and garlic mustard often invade the site.

Dominant plant species

plains cottonwood (Populus deltoides ssp. monilifera), tree
western snowberry (Symphoricarpos occidentalis), shrub
blue grama (Bouteloua gracilis), grass
Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis), grass
smooth brome (Bromus inermis), grass
goldenrod (Solidago), other herbaceous
American licorice (Glycyrrhiza lepidota), other herbaceous
Cuman ragweed (Ambrosia psilostachya), other herbaceous

Community 6.3
Immature Green Ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica) Community

The Immature Green Ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica) Community (6.3) develops from the Plains Cottonwood (Populus deltoides ssp. monilifera) Community (6.1) over time in the absence of flooding with prescribed grazing. Plains cottonwood are present in the tree overstory but due to the absence flooding and the accompanying scouring, the environment is not conducive to establishment of cottonwood seedlings. Cottonwood trees and woody shrubs provide a microclimate conducive to green ash establishment. Other species such as boxelder and common hackberry may also establish. Woody shrubs, including American plum, chokecherry, and western snowberry, are a significant component of the plant community. Plains cottonwood trees range from the immature to young mature stages while green ash and other trees range from sapling to immature stages. The herbaceous plant community is relatively productive but somewhat reduced from the Reference Community (1.1) due primarily to the competition from the woody shrub understory.

Dominant plant species

green ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica), tree
plains cottonwood (Populus deltoides ssp. monilifera), tree
American plum (Prunus americana), shrub
chokecherry (Prunus virginiana), shrub
western snowberry (Symphoricarpos occidentalis), shrub
needle and thread (Hesperostipa comata ssp. comata), grass
green needlegrass (Nassella viridula), grass
western wheatgrass (Pascopyrum smithii), grass

Community 6.4
Scattered Mature Green Ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica) Community

The Scattered Mature Green Ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica) Community (6.4) develops from the Immature Green Ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica) Community (6.3) or from the Green Ash-Box Elder (Fraxinus pennsylvanica-Acer negundo), No Regeneration Community. This occurs over time in the absence of flooding and scouring with continuous season long or continuous seasonal grazing. Heavy wildlife browsing will also cause this change. Over time, surviving green ash trees mature but there is little or no tree regeneration due to the grazing of seedlings and saplings. The scattered trees give the site a park-like appearance with few trees and a reduced understory. Fire, either wildfire or prescribed burning, may also factor into this transition. The type of grazing that limits regeneration also reduces the desirable, native herbaceous species. Kentucky bluegrass, smooth brome, or other non-native cool-season grasses invade areas previously occupied by native grasses. Native forbs such as American licorice, asters, white sagebrush, goldenrods, and Cuman ragweed increase and introduced forbs such as Canada thistle, leafy spurge, and garlic mustard invade the site.

Dominant plant species

green ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica), tree
western snowberry (Symphoricarpos occidentalis), shrub
Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis), grass
smooth brome (Bromus inermis), grass

Community 6.5
Green Ash-Boxelder-Common Hackberry (Fraxinus pennsylvanica-Acer negundo-Celtis occidentalis) Regeneration Community

The Green Ash-Boxelder-Common Hackberry (Fraxinus pennsylvanica-Acer negundo-Celtis occidentalis) Regeneration Community (6.5) develops over time from the Immature Green Ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica) Community (6.3) as the green ash trees mature. Green ash trees provide a microclimate suitable for establishment of additional tree species. This community develops with prescribed grazing in the absence of flooding and accompanying scouring. Plains cottonwood trees may be present in small numbers but the dominant trees are typically green ash, boxelder, and common hackberry. These three woody species may be co-dominant or the community may be dominated by one or two of these species. American plum, chokecherry, western snowberry, or other woody shrubs remain in the understory, but fewer than in communities 6.1 or 6.3. While reduced, the herbaceous understory is relatively productive. The majority of the trees present are mature but regeneration is typically evident with a presence of seedlings and saplings.

Dominant plant species

green ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica), tree
common hackberry (Celtis occidentalis), tree
boxelder (Acer negundo), tree
American plum (Prunus americana), shrub
chokecherry (Prunus virginiana), shrub
western snowberry (Symphoricarpos occidentalis), shrub
western wheatgrass (Pascopyrum smithii), grass
green needlegrass (Nassella viridula), grass

Community 6.6
Green Ash-Box Elder (Fraxinus pennsylvanica-Acer negundo) No Regeneration Community

The Green Ash-Boxelder (Fraxinus pennsylvanica-Acer negundo), No Regeneration Community (6.6) typically develops from the Green Ash-Boxelder-Common Hackberry (Fraxinus pennsylvanica-Acer negundo-Celtis occidentalis) Regeneration Community (6.5). This change occurs with the continued absence of flooding in conjunction with continuous season long grazing, continuous seasonal grazing, or heavy wildlife browsing. Wildfire or prescribed fire may also be a factor in this shift in plant community. Surviving trees mature but seedlings and saplings are grazed resulting in little or no tree regeneration. The type of grazing that limits woody regeneration also negatively impacts native grasses resulting in a dominance of non-native, cool-season grasses such as Kentucky bluegrass and smooth brome. American licorice asters, white sagebrush, goldenrods, and Cuman ragweed are common forbs. Introduced forbs including Canada thistle, leafy spurge, or garlic mustard may invade the site.

Dominant plant species

green ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica), tree
boxelder (Acer negundo), tree
Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis), grass
smooth brome (Bromus inermis), grass

Pathway 6.1A
Community 6.1 to 6.2

In the absence of periodic flooding, scouring does not occur. Since scouring creates the ideal medium for cottonwood seedlings to establish, the number of seedlings is reduced. Lack of flooding combined with continuous seasonal or continuous season long grazing prevents regeneration of the existing mature cottonwood trees causing the Plains Cottonwood Regeneration Community (6.1) to shift to the Mature Plains Cottonwood No Regeneration Community.

Pathway 6.1B
Community 6.1 to 6.3

In the absence of periodic flooding, scouring does not occur. Since scouring creates the ideal medium for cottonwood seedlings to establish, the number of seedlings is reduced. In the absence of flooding, prescribed grazing will convert the Plains Cottonwood Regeneration Community (6.1) to the Immature Green Ash Community (6.3).

Pathway 6.2A
Community 6.2 to 6.1

Periodic flooding and the accompanying scouring combined with prescribed grazing creates an ideal medium for seedling establishment and cottonwood regeneration. This will move the Mature Plains Cottonwood No Regeneration Community (6.2) to the Plains Cottonwood Regeneration Community (6.1).

Pathway 6.3A
Community 6.3 to 6.1

Periodic flooding and the accompanying scouring combined with prescribed grazing creates an ideal medium for seedling establishment and cottonwood regeneration. This will allow cottonwoods to reestablish and move the Immature Green Ash Community (6.3) to the Plains Cottonwood Regeneration Community (6.1).

Pathway 6.3B
Community 6.3 to 6.4

Long-term absence of flooding combined with continuous season long or continuous seasonal grazing will move the Immature Green Ash Community (6.3) to the Scattered Mature Green Ash Community (6.4). Heavy wildlife browsing will also facilitate this change. Fire, either wildfire or prescribed burning, may also factor into this transition.

Pathway 6.3C
Community 6.3 to 6.5

Long-term absence of flooding combined with prescribed grazing will move the Immature Green Ash Community (6.3) to the Green Ash-Boxelder-Common Hackberry Regeneration Community (6.5).

Pathway 6.5A
Community 6.5 to 6.1

Periodic flooding and the accompanying scouring combined with prescribed grazing creates an ideal medium for seedling establishment and cottonwood regeneration. Cottonwoods will reestablish and move the Green Ash-Boxelder-Common Hackberry Regeneration Community (6.5) to the Plains Cottonwood Regeneration Community (6.1).

Pathway 6.5B
Community 6.5 to 6.6

Continued absence of flooding combined with continued continuous season long or continuous seasonal grazing will move the Green Ash-Boxelder-Common Hackberry Regeneration Community (6.5) to the Green Ash-Boxelder No Regeneration Community (6.6). Fire, either wildfire or prescribed burning, may also factor into this transition.

Pathway 6.6A
Community 6.6 to 6.4

Continued absence of flooding combined with continued continuous season long or continuous seasonal grazing will move the Green Ash-Boxelder No Regeneration Community (6.6) to the Scattered Mature Green Ash Community (6.4). Fire, either wildfire or prescribed burning, may also factor into this transition.

State 7
Upper Woody Draw State

The Upper Woody Draw State (7) is a very dynamic state that occurs when deciduous trees encroach from upper portions of drainages present on the site. The dominant woody species are deciduous trees and shrubs but coniferous species may be present. Grazing regimes and lack of fire play major roles in the dynamics and spatial boundaries of the various plant communities. The Upper Woody Draw State includes the Seedling Green Ash-Bur Oak (Fraxinus pennsylvanica-Quercus macrocarpa) Community (7.1), the Immature Green Ash-Bur Oak (Fraxinus pennsylvanica-Quercus macrocarpa) Community (7.2), the Mature Green Ash-Bur Oak (Fraxinus pennsylvanica-Quercus macrocarpa) Community (7.3), the Scattered Mature Green Ash-Bur Oak (Fraxinus pennsylvanica-Quercus macrocarpa) No Regeneration Community (7.4), and the Green Ash-Bur Oak (Fraxinus pennsylvanica-Quercus macrocarpa)/Immature Eastern Redcedar-Ponderosa Pine (Juniperus virginiana-Pinus ponderosa) Community (7.5).

Dominant plant species

green ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica), tree
bur oak (Quercus macrocarpa), tree
American plum (Prunus americana), shrub
chokecherry (Prunus virginiana), shrub
western snowberry (Symphoricarpos occidentalis), shrub
big bluestem (Andropogon gerardii), grass
green needlegrass (Nassella viridula), grass
western wheatgrass (Pascopyrum smithii), grass

Community 7.1
Seedling Green Ash-Bur Oak (Fraxinus pennsylvanica-Quercus macrocarpa) Community

The Seedling Green Ash-Bur Oak (Fraxinus pennsylvanica-Quercus macrocarpa) Community (7.1) typically develops when woody shrubs and trees from encroach from drainages present on the site. When encroachment occurs in the absence of fire, the woody shrubs provide a suitable microclimate for establishment of tree seedlings and saplings. In this community, trees range from seedling to immature stages. The herbaceous understory maintains it productivity. As compared to the Reference Community (1.1) there are more woody shrubs and the herbaceous component is slightly reduced. American plum, chokecherry, and western snowberry are typically present in the understory shrub component. In some cases, silver buffaloberry and currants dominate the shrub component.

Dominant plant species

green ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica), tree
bur oak (Quercus macrocarpa), tree
American plum (Prunus americana), shrub
chokecherry (Prunus virginiana), shrub
western snowberry (Symphoricarpos occidentalis), shrub
big bluestem (Andropogon gerardii), grass
western wheatgrass (Pascopyrum smithii), grass
green needlegrass (Nassella viridula), grass

Community 7.2
Immature Green Ash-Bur Oak (Fraxinus pennsylvanica-Quercus macrocarpa) Community

The Immature Green Ash-Bur Oak (Fraxinus pennsylvanica-Quercus macrocarpa) Community (7.2) develops from the Seedling Green Ash-Bur Oak (Fraxinus pennsylvanica-Quercus macrocarpa) Community (7.1) with prescribed grazing over time as the trees mature. Typically, bur oak will be the dominant tree in eastern portions of the MLRA while green ash will be dominant in western portions. Trees will range from the immature to early mature stages and seedlings and saplings will be present in the understory. The herbaceous community is relatively productive but is reduced from the Reference Community (1.1) due to competition from the woody shrub understory.

Dominant plant species

bur oak (Quercus macrocarpa), tree
green ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica), tree
American plum (Prunus americana), shrub
chokecherry (Prunus virginiana), shrub
western snowberry (Symphoricarpos occidentalis), shrub
western wheatgrass (Pascopyrum smithii), grass
green needlegrass (Nassella viridula), grass

Community 7.3
Mature Green Ash-Bur Oak (Fraxinus pennsylvanica-Quercus macrocarpa) Community

The Mature Green Ash-Bur Oak (Fraxinus pennsylvanica-Quercus macrocarpa) Community (7.3) develops from the Immature Green Ash-Bur Oak (Fraxinus pennsylvanica-Quercus macrocarpa) Community (7.2) over time with moderate or light prescribed grazing. This management creates healthy herbaceous and shrub understory and allows young trees to survive. Most trees are in the mature stage but regeneration is occurring as evidenced by the presence of seedlings and saplings. Woody shrubs are present in the understory but typically in lower amounts than in the Seedling Green Ash-Bur Oak (Fraxinus pennsylvanica-Quercus macrocarpa) Community (7.1) and Immature Green Ash-Bur Oak (Fraxinus pennsylvanica-Quercus macrocarpa) Community (7.2). The herbaceous component is reduced but remains relatively productive.

Community 7.4
Scattered Mature Green Ash-Bur Oak (Fraxinus pennsylvanica-Quercus macrocarpa), No Regeneration Community

The Scattered Mature Green Ash-Bur Oak (Fraxinus pennsylvanica-Quercus macrocarpa), No Regeneration Community (7.4) develops over time from the Mature Green Ash-Bur Oak (Fraxinus pennsylvanica-Quercus macrocarpa) Community (7.3) with continuous season-long or continuous seasonal grazing. Existing trees mature but seedlings and saplings are routinely grazed resulting in little or no regeneration. As trees mature further, tree loss from disease and old age results in an open woody canopy. Scattered trees create a park-like appearance with few trees and a reduced understory. The type of grazing that limits regeneration also reduces desirable, native herbaceous species. Non-native cool-season grasses, such as Kentucky bluegrass and smooth brome, often dominate the herbaceous portion of the plant community. Asters, white sagebrush, goldenrods, and Cuman ragweed are common forbs. With prescribed burning or wildfire, the plant community may return to one dominated by grasses and grass-likes. After fire, bur oak will sprout but the dominance of herbaceous understory usually results in few or no bur remaining oak trees especially when the site is grazed.

Dominant plant species

green ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica), tree
bur oak (Quercus macrocarpa), tree
western snowberry (Symphoricarpos occidentalis), shrub
Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis), grass
smooth brome (Bromus inermis), grass
western wheatgrass (Pascopyrum smithii), grass

Community 7.5
Green Ash-Bur Oak (Fraxinus pennsylvanica-Quercus macrocarpa)/Immature Eastern Redcedar-Ponderosa Pine (Juniperus virginiana-Pinus ponderosa) Community

The Green Ash-Bur Oak (Fraxinus pennsylvanica-Quercus macrocarpa)/Immature Eastern Redcedar-Ponderosa Pine (Juniperus virginiana-Pinus ponderosa) Community (7.5) may develop from any other plant community in the Upper Woody Draw State (7) when a seed source for eastern redcedar or ponderosa pine is nearby. The seed source for eastern redcedar is typically planted windbreaks containing eastern redcedar while the seed source for ponderosa pine may be native sources or planted windbreaks. The deciduous woody canopy provides a suitable microclimate for the establishment of shade tolerant coniferous species. In the absence of fire, coniferous species will increase in size and in the process alter the microclimate, particularly soil moisture, making the environment less suitable for deciduous trees. Numerous immature juniper or pine trees typically occur under the deciduous trees and marking the start of the transition to the Woody Invaded State (4). As coniferous trees increase the herbaceous and shrub understories will rapidly decline.

Dominant plant species

green ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica), tree
bur oak (Quercus macrocarpa), tree
eastern redcedar (Juniperus virginiana), tree
ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa), tree
Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis), grass
green needlegrass (Nassella viridula), grass

Pathway 7.1A
Community 7.1 to 7.2

The Immature Green Ash-Bur Oak Community (7.2) develops over time from the Seedling Green Ash-Bur Oak Community (7.1) with moderate or light prescribed grazing and absence of fire.

Pathway 7.2A
Community 7.2 to 7.3

Over time, the continued absence of fire combined with light to moderate prescribed grazing, the Immature Green Ash-Bur Oak Community (7.2) will shift to the Mature Green Ash-Bur Oak Community (7.3).

Pathway 7.3A
Community 7.3 to 7.4

Over time, the continued absence of fire combined with continuous season-long or continuous seasonal grazing, the Mature Green Ash-Bur Oak Community (7.3) will shift to the Scattered Mature Green Ash-Bur Oak, No Regeneration Community (7.4). .

Pathway 7.3B
Community 7.3 to 7.5

With time, continued absence of fire, and encroachment of coniferous woody species, the Mature Green Ash-Bur Oak Community (7.3) will shift to the Green Ash-Bur Oak/Immature Eastern Redcedar-Ponderosa Pine Community (7.5).

Pathway 7.4A
Community 7.4 to 7.5

With time, continued absence of fire, and encroachment of coniferous woody species, the Scattered Mature Green Ash-Bur Oak Community (7.4) will shift to the Green Ash-Bur Oak/Immature Eastern Redcedar-Ponderosa Pine Community (7.5).

Pathway 7.5A
Community 7.5 to 7.3

With prescribed burning and brush management including coniferous woody species removal, the Green Ash-Bur Oak/Immature Eastern Redcedar-Ponderosa Pine Community (7.5) can return to the Mature Green Ash-Bur Oak Community (7.3).

Pathway 7.5B
Community 7.5 to 7.4

Transition T1A
State 1 to 2

Continuous seasonal summer grazing or rotational grazing with inadequate recovery periods during the summer will cause the Reference State (1) to lose a significant proportion of warm-season tall- and midgrass species and cross a threshold to the Native/Invaded Grass State (2).This transition will also occur with prolonged (more than 10 years) of non-use with no fire. Water infiltration and other hydrologic functions will be reduced due to the root-matting presence of sod-forming grasses. With the decline and loss of deeper-penetrating root systems, soil structure and biological integrity are degraded. Once this occurs, return to the Reference State (1) may not be feasible.

Transition T1B
State 1 to 4

Disruption of the natural fire regime and the encroachment of invasive exotic and native woody species can cause the Reference State (1)to shift to the Invaded Woody State (4).

Transition T1C
State 1 to 5

The Reference State (1) transitions to the Sodbusted State (5) when the site is significantly altered by tillage to facilitate production agriculture. The disruption to the plant community, soil, and hydrology of the system makes restoration unlikely.

Transition T1D
State 1 to 6

The Reference State (1) transitions to the Lower Woody Draw State (6) after the site experiences flooding and accompanying scouring. Scouring reduces herbaceous competition and provides suitable conditions for cottonwood seedlings establishment. With long-term prescribed grazing a deciduous woody plant community will establish and be maintained.

Transition T1E
State 1 to 7

The Reference State (1) transitions to the Upper Woody Draw State (7) when the site does not experience fire or woody species management. The lack of fire and woody species management allows shrubs to increase and deciduous trees to encroach from drainageways located within the site. With continued absence of fire and brush management, a woody plant community will establish and be maintained.

Restoration pathway R2A
State 2 to 1

Long-term (fifteen years or more) prescribed grazing with adequate growing season recovery periods and appropriate stocking rates timed to coincide with the rapid growth phase of the cool-season grasses may return the Native/Invaded Grass State (2) to the Reference State (1).The length of time required for this restoration depends upon the amount of native grasses remaining in the plant community. This restoration is not feasible unless an adequate amount of native grasses remain in the community. Appropriately timed prescribed burning may accelerate this process.

Transition T2A
State 2 to 3

Continued seasonal summer grazing, continuous season long grazing, or rotational grazing with inadequate recovery periods during the summer will cause the Native/Invaded Grass State (2) to lose most, if not all, warm-season tall- and midgrasses and cool-season bunchgrasses and cross a threshold to the Invaded Grass State (3). Extended periods of non-use with no fire favors cool-season species and the invasion of non-native grasses and also causes this transition. Water infiltration and other hydrologic functions will be reduced due to the root-matting presence of sod-forming grasses. With the decline and loss of deeper-penetrating root systems, soil structure and biotic integrity will be significantly degraded. Once this occurs, a return to the Native/Invaded Grass State may not be feasible.

Transition T2B
State 2 to 4

Disruption of the natural fire regime and the encroachment of invasive exotic and native woody species can cause the Native/Invaded Grass State (2) to shift to the Invaded Woody State (4).

Transition T2C
State 2 to 5

The Native/Invaded Grass State (2) transitions to the Sodbusted State (5) when the site is significantly altered by tillage to facilitate production agriculture. The disruption to the plant community, soil, and hydrology of the system makes restoration unlikely.

Transition T2D
State 2 to 6

The Native/Invaded Grass State (2) transitions to the Lower Woody Draw State (6) after the site experiences flooding and accompanying scouring. Scouring reduces herbaceous competition and provides suitable conditions for cottonwood seedlings to establish. With long-term prescribed grazing a woody plant community will establish and be maintained.

Transition T2E
State 2 to 7

The Native/Invaded Grass State (2) transitions to the Upper Woody Draw State (7) when the site does not experience fire or woody species management. This lack of both fire and woody species management allows shrubs to increase and deciduous trees to encroach from drainageways located within the site. With continued absence of fire and brush management, a woody plant community will establish and be maintained.

Transition T3A
State 3 to 4

Disruption of the natural fire regime and the encroachment of invasive exotic and native woody species can cause the Invaded Grass State (3) to shift to the Invaded Woody State (4).

Transition T3B
State 3 to 5

The Invaded Grass State (3) transitions to the Sodbusted State (5) when the site is significantly altered by tillage to facilitate production agriculture. The disruption to the plant community, soil, and hydrology of the system makes restoration unlikely.

Transition T3C
State 3 to 6

The Invaded Grass State (3) transitions to the Lower Woody Draw State (6) after the site experiences flooding and accompanying scouring. Scouring reduces herbaceous competition and provides suitable conditions for cottonwood seedlings to establish. With long-term prescribed grazing a woody plant community will establish and be maintained.

Transition T3D
State 3 to 7

The Invaded Grass State (3) transitions to the Upper Woody Draw State (7) when the site does not experience fire or woody species management. This lack of both fire and woody species management allows shrubs to increase and deciduous trees to encroach from drainageways located within the site. With long-term moderate or light prescribed grazing, a woody plant community will establish and be maintained.

Restoration pathway R4A
State 4 to 1

Prescribed burning, wildfire, harvest, and brush management will move the Invaded Woody State (4) to the Reference State (1). The forb component may initially increase following tree removal. Ongoing brush management such as hand cutting, chemical spot treatments, or periodic prescribed burning is required to prevent a return to the Invaded Woody State. Land that transitioned to the Invaded Woody State from the Native/Invaded Grass State (2), Invaded Grass State (3), or the Sodbusted State (5), cannot be restored to the Reference State through removal of woody species as the native plant community, soils, and hydrologic function have been too severely impacted for that restoration to occur.

Restoration pathway R4B
State 4 to 2

Prescribed burning, wildfire, harvest, and brush management will move the Invaded Woody State (6) to the Native/Invaded Grass State (2).The forb component may initially increase following tree removal. Ongoing brush management such as hand cutting, chemical spot treatments, or periodic prescribed burning is required to prevent a return to the Invaded Woody State. Land that transitioned to the Invaded Woody State from the Native/Invaded Grass State, Invaded Grass State (3), or the Sodbusted State (5), cannot be restored to the Reference State (1) through removal of woody species as the native plant community, soils, and hydrologic function have been too severely impacted for that restoration to occur.

Restoration pathway R4C
State 4 to 3

Prescribed burning, wildfire, harvest, and brush management will move the Invaded Woody State (4) to the Invaded Grass State (3). The forb component may initially increase following tree removal. Ongoing brush management such as hand cutting, chemical spot treatments, or periodic prescribed burning is required to prevent a return to the Invaded Woody State. Land that transitioned to the Invaded Woody State from the Native/Invaded Grass State (2), Invaded Grass State, or the Sodbusted State (5), cannot be restored to the Reference State (1) through removal of woody species as the native plant community, soils, and hydrologic function have been too severely impacted for that restoration to occur.

Transition R4D
State 4 to 5

Prescribed burning, wildfire, harvest, and brush management will move the Invaded Woody State (4) to the Sodbusted State (5). The forb component may initially increase following tree removal. Ongoing brush management such as hand cutting, chemical spot treatments, or periodic prescribed burning is required to prevent a return to the Invaded Woody State. Land that transitioned to the Invaded Woody State from the Native/Invaded Grass State 2), Invaded Grass State (3), or the Sodbusted State, cannot be restored to the Reference State (1) through removal of woody species as the native plant community, soils, and hydrologic function have been too severely impacted for that restoration to occur.

Transition R4E
State 4 to 6

With prescribed burning, wildfire, timber harvest, and brush management the eastern redcedar and other coniferous species can be removed returning the Woody Invaded State (4) to the Lower Woody Draw State (6).

Transition R4F
State 4 to 7

Restoration pathway T5A
State 5 to 4

Disruption of the natural fire regime and the encroachment of invasive exotic and native woody species can cause the Sodbusted State (5) to shift to the Invaded Woody State (4).

Transition T5B
State 5 to 6

The Sodbusted State (5) transitions to the Lower Woody Draw State (6) after the site experiences flooding and accompanying scouring. Scouring reduces herbaceous competition and provides suitable conditions for cottonwood seedlings to establish. With long-term prescribed grazing a woody plant community will establish and be maintained.

Transition T5C
State 5 to 7

The Sodbusted State (5) transitions to the Upper Woody Draw State (7) when the site does not experience fire or woody species management. This lack of both fire and woody species management allows shrubs to increase and deciduous trees to encroach from drainageways located within the site. With long-term moderate or light prescribed grazing, a woody plant community will establish and be maintained.

Restoration pathway R6A
State 6 to 1

When flooding does not occur on the site the Lower Woody Draw State (6) can return to the Reference State (1) with prescribed burning, wildfire, timber harvest, brush management, and prescribed grazing in mid-summer. Grazing in mid-summer typically adversely impacts woody regeneration. Land that entered the Lower Woody Draw State from the Native/Invaded State (2), Invaded Grass State (3), or Sodbusted State (5) cannot return to the Reference State with woody species management.

Restoration pathway R6B
State 6 to 2

When flooding does not occur on the site the Lower Woody Draw State (6) can return to the Native/Invaded Grass State (2) with prescribed burning, wildfire, timber harvest, brush management and continuous season long grazing or continuous seasonal grazing. Land that entered the Lower Woody Draw State from the Invaded Grass State (3) or Sodbusted State (5) cannot return to the Native/Invaded Grass State with woody species management.

Restoration pathway R6C
State 6 to 3

When flooding does not occur on the site the Lower Woody Draw State (6) can return to the Invaded Grass State (3) with prescribed burning, wildfire, timber harvest, brush management and continuous season long grazing or continuous seasonal grazing. Land that entered the Lower Woody Draw State from the Sodbusted State (5) cannot return to the Invaded Grass State.

Transition T6A
State 6 to 4

When coniferous encroachment into the Lower Woody Draw State (6) reaches the point that eastern redcedar, or in some cases ponderosa pine, dominate the site, the plant community transitions to the Woody Invaded State (4). As the density of eastern redcedar increases, deciduous trees are unable to establish. Eastern redcedar will dominate the site and eventually form a nearly closed canopy.

Restoration pathway R6D
State 6 to 5

When flooding does not occur on the site the Lower Woody Draw State (6) can return to the Sodbusted State (5) with prescribed burning, wildfire, timber harvest, brush management and continuous season long grazing or continuous seasonal grazing.

Restoration pathway R7A
State 7 to 1

The Upper Woody Draw State (7) can be restored to the Reference State (1) with the implementation prescribed burning, brush management, and long-term prescribed grazing. Removal of woody species through a wildfire followed by long-term prescribed grazing will also bring about this restoration. Land that entered the Upper Woody Draw State from the Native/Invaded Grass State (2), Invaded Grass State (3), or Sodbusted State (5) cannot be restored to the Reference State through woody species management.

Restoration pathway R7B
State 7 to 2

The Upper Woody Draw State (7) can be restored to the Native/Invaded Grass State (2) with the implementation prescribed burning, timber harvest, and brush management. Removal of woody species through a wildfire will also bring about this restoration.

Restoration pathway R7C
State 7 to 3

The Upper Woody Draw State (7) can return to the Invaded Grass State (3) with the implementation prescribed burning, timber harvest, and brush management. Removal of woody species through a wildfire may also bring about this restoration.

Transition T7A
State 7 to 4

When coniferous encroachment into the Upper Woody Draw State (7) reaches the point that eastern redcedar, or in some cases ponderosa pine, dominate the site, the plant community transitions to the Woody Invaded State (4). As the density of eastern redcedar increases, deciduous trees are unable to establish. Eastern redcedar will dominate the site and eventually form a nearly closed canopy.

Restoration pathway R7D
State 7 to 5

The Upper Woody Draw State (7) can be restored to the Sodbusted State (5) with the implementation prescribed burning, timber harvest, and brush management. Removal of woody species through a wildfire may also bring about this restoration.

Additional community tables

Table 9. Community 1.1 plant community composition

Group	Common name	Symbol	Scientific name	Annual production (lb/acre)	Foliar cover (%)
Grass/Grasslike
1	Warm-Season Tallgrass			850–1530
	big bluestem	ANGE	Andropogon gerardii	680–1360	–
	switchgrass	PAVI2	Panicum virgatum	68–340	–
	Indiangrass	SONU2	Sorghastrum nutans	0–170	–
	marsh muhly	MURA	Muhlenbergia racemosa	0–102	–
	Grass, perennial	2GP	Grass, perennial	0–34	–
2	Cool-Season Rhizomatous Grass			340–680
	western wheatgrass	PASM	Pascopyrum smithii	340–680	–
3	Warm-Season Midgrass			340–510
	little bluestem	SCSC	Schizachyrium scoparium	170–510	–
	sideoats grama	BOCU	Bouteloua curtipendula	170–340	–
	dropseed	SPORO	Sporobolus	0–170	–
	Grass, perennial	2GP	Grass, perennial	0–34	–
4	Cool-Season Bunchgrass			170–510
	green needlegrass	NAVI4	Nassella viridula	170–510	–
	porcupinegrass	HESP11	Hesperostipa spartea	34–170	–
	slender wheatgrass	ELTR7	Elymus trachycaulus	0–102	–
	Canada wildrye	ELCA4	Elymus canadensis	0–68	–
	prairie Junegrass	KOMA	Koeleria macrantha	0–68	–
	Scribner's rosette grass	DIOLS	Dichanthelium oligosanthes var. scribnerianum	0–34	–
	Grass, perennial	2GP	Grass, perennial	0–34	–
5	Grass-like			68–340
	Pennsylvania sedge	CAPE6	Carex pensylvanica	68–340	–
	clustered field sedge	CAPR5	Carex praegracilis	0–170	–
	Grass-like, perennial	2GLP	Grass-like, perennial	0–34	–
Forb
6	Forb			170–340
	western yarrow	ACMIO	Achillea millefolium var. occidentalis	34–102	–
	American licorice	GLLE3	Glycyrrhiza lepidota	0–102	–
	white sagebrush	ARLU	Artemisia ludoviciana	34–102	–
	false boneset	BREU	Brickellia eupatorioides	34–102	–
	white heath aster	SYER	Symphyotrichum ericoides	34–102	–
	Maximilian sunflower	HEMA2	Helianthus maximiliani	34–102	–
	stiff goldenrod	OLRI	Oligoneuron rigidum	34–102	–
	Cuman ragweed	AMPS	Ambrosia psilostachya	0–68	–
	flatspine stickseed	LAOCO	Lappula occidentalis var. occidentalis	34–68	–
	purple prairie clover	DAPU5	Dalea purpurea	0–68	–
	silverleaf Indian breadroot	PEAR6	Pediomelum argophyllum	0–68	–
	slimflower scurfpea	PSTE5	Psoralidium tenuiflorum	0–68	–
	Missouri goldenrod	SOMI2	Solidago missouriensis	0–68	–
	starry false lily of the valley	MAST4	Maianthemum stellatum	0–68	–
	swamp verbena	VEHA2	Verbena hastata	0–68	–
	dotted blazing star	LIPU	Liatris punctata	34–68	–
	American vetch	VIAM	Vicia americana	0–34	–
	northern bedstraw	GABO2	Galium boreale	0–34	–
	showy ticktrefoil	DECA7	Desmodium canadense	0–34	–
	sweetclover	MELIL	Melilotus	0	–
	curly dock	RUCR	Rumex crispus	0	–
	common mullein	VETH	Verbascum thapsus	0	–
Shrub/Vine
7	Shrub			68–238
	chokecherry	PRVI	Prunus virginiana	0–170	–
	leadplant	AMCA6	Amorpha canescens	34–170	–
	western snowberry	SYOC	Symphoricarpos occidentalis	34–170	–
	rose	ROSA5	Rosa	34–102	–
	western poison ivy	TORY	Toxicodendron rydbergii	0–68	–
Tree
8	Tree			0–68
	American elm	ULAM	Ulmus americana	0–68	–
	boxelder	ACNE2	Acer negundo	0–68	–
	bur oak	QUMA2	Quercus macrocarpa	0–68	–
	green ash	FRPE	Fraxinus pennsylvanica	0–68	–
	common hackberry	CEOC	Celtis occidentalis	0–68	–
	plains cottonwood	PODEM	Populus deltoides ssp. monilifera	0–68	–
	Tree	2TREE	Tree	0–68	–

Table 10. Community 1.2 plant community composition

Group	Common name	Symbol	Scientific name	Annual production (lb/acre)	Foliar cover (%)
Grass/Grasslike
1	Warm-Season Tallgrass			135–405
	big bluestem	ANGE	Andropogon gerardii	135–405	–
	switchgrass	PAVI2	Panicum virgatum	0–81	–
	Grass, perennial	2GP	Grass, perennial	0–27	–
2	Cool-Season Rhizomatous Grass			405–810
	western wheatgrass	PASM	Pascopyrum smithii	405–810	–
3	Warm-Season MIdgrass			54–270
	little bluestem	SCSC	Schizachyrium scoparium	54–270	–
	dropseed	SPORO	Sporobolus	27–216	–
	sideoats grama	BOCU	Bouteloua curtipendula	27–135	–
	Grass, perennial	2GP	Grass, perennial	0–27	–
4	Cool-Season Bunchgrass			27–270
	green needlegrass	NAVI4	Nassella viridula	27–270	–
	porcupinegrass	HESP11	Hesperostipa spartea	0–135	–
	Grass, perennial	2GP	Grass, perennial	0–27	–
	Scribner's rosette grass	DIOLS	Dichanthelium oligosanthes var. scribnerianum	0–27	–
5	Grass-like			27–135
	Pennsylvania sedge	CAPE6	Carex pensylvanica	27–135	–
	clustered field sedge	CAPR5	Carex praegracilis	0–81	–
	Grass-like, perennial	2GLP	Grass-like, perennial	0–27	–
6	Non-Native Grass			405–810
	Kentucky bluegrass	POPR	Poa pratensis	270–675	–
	smooth brome	BRIN2	Bromus inermis	54–270	–
	cheatgrass	BRTE	Bromus tectorum	0–135	–
Forb
7	Forb			135–270
	white sagebrush	ARLU	Artemisia ludoviciana	27–135	–
	stiff goldenrod	OLRI	Oligoneuron rigidum	27–135	–
	western yarrow	ACMIO	Achillea millefolium var. occidentalis	27–135	–
	white heath aster	SYER	Symphyotrichum ericoides	27–108	–
	silverleaf Indian breadroot	PEAR6	Pediomelum argophyllum	0–81	–
	slimflower scurfpea	PSTE5	Psoralidium tenuiflorum	0–81	–
	sweetclover	MELIL	Melilotus	0–81	–
	Cuman ragweed	AMPS	Ambrosia psilostachya	27–81	–
	Missouri goldenrod	SOMI2	Solidago missouriensis	27–81	–
	American licorice	GLLE3	Glycyrrhiza lepidota	0–81	–
	swamp verbena	VEHA2	Verbena hastata	0–81	–
	common mullein	VETH	Verbascum thapsus	0–54	–
	curly dock	RUCR	Rumex crispus	0–54	–
	false boneset	BREU	Brickellia eupatorioides	0–54	–
	flatspine stickseed	LAOCO	Lappula occidentalis var. occidentalis	0–54	–
	Maximilian sunflower	HEMA2	Helianthus maximiliani	0–54	–
	starry false lily of the valley	MAST4	Maianthemum stellatum	0–27	–
	dotted blazing star	LIPU	Liatris punctata	0–27	–
	northern bedstraw	GABO2	Galium boreale	0–27	–
	purple prairie clover	DAPU5	Dalea purpurea	0–27	–
Shrub/Vine
8	Shrub			54–270
	chokecherry	PRVI	Prunus virginiana	0–135	–
	western snowberry	SYOC	Symphoricarpos occidentalis	27–135	–
	Shrub (>.5m)	2SHRUB	Shrub (>.5m)	0–135	–
	rose	ROSA5	Rosa	27–108	–
	leadplant	AMCA6	Amorpha canescens	0–81	–
	western poison ivy	TORY	Toxicodendron rydbergii	0–81	–
Tree
9	Tree			0–54
	American elm	ULAM	Ulmus americana	0–54	–
	boxelder	ACNE2	Acer negundo	0–54	–
	bur oak	QUMA2	Quercus macrocarpa	0–54	–
	green ash	FRPE	Fraxinus pennsylvanica	0–54	–
	common hackberry	CEOC	Celtis occidentalis	0–54	–
	plains cottonwood	PODEM	Populus deltoides ssp. monilifera	0–54	–

Table 11. Community 2.1 plant community composition

Group	Common name	Symbol	Scientific name	Annual production (lb/acre)	Foliar cover (%)
Grass/Grasslike
1	Warm-Season Tallgrass			50–250
	big bluestem	ANGE	Andropogon gerardii	50–250	–
	composite dropseed	SPCO16	Sporobolus compositus	25–125	–
	switchgrass	PAVI2	Panicum virgatum	0–75	–
	Indiangrass	SONU2	Sorghastrum nutans	0–50	–
	marsh muhly	MURA	Muhlenbergia racemosa	0–50	–
	Grass, perennial	2GP	Grass, perennial	0–50	–
2	Warm-Season Midgrass			50–375
	little bluestem	SCSC	Schizachyrium scoparium	50–250	–
	sideoats grama	BOCU	Bouteloua curtipendula	25–125	–
	Grass, perennial	2GP	Grass, perennial	0–50	–
3	Cool-Season Rhizomatous Grass			125–500
	western wheatgrass	PASM	Pascopyrum smithii	125–500	–
4	Cool-Season Bunchgrass			50–250
	green needlegrass	NAVI4	Nassella viridula	25–200	–
	porcupinegrass	HESP11	Hesperostipa spartea	25–75	–
	slender wheatgrass	ELTR7	Elymus trachycaulus	0–75	–
	prairie Junegrass	KOMA	Koeleria macrantha	0–50	–
	Scribner's rosette grass	DIOLS	Dichanthelium oligosanthes var. scribnerianum	0–50	–
	Grass, perennial	2GP	Grass, perennial	0–50	–
	Canada wildrye	ELCA4	Elymus canadensis	0–50	–
5	Grass-like			25–125
	Pennsylvania sedge	CAPE6	Carex pensylvanica	25–125	–
	Grass-like (not a true grass)	2GL	Grass-like (not a true grass)	0–125	–
	clustered field sedge	CAPR5	Carex praegracilis	0–75	–
6	Non-Native Cool-Season Grass			30–55
	Kentucky bluegrass	POPR	Poa pratensis	125–750	–
	smooth brome	BRIN2	Bromus inermis	125–375	–
	cheatgrass	BRTE	Bromus tectorum	0–125	–
	Grass, introduced	2GI	Grass, introduced	0–50	–
Forb
7	Forb			125–375
	sweetclover	MELIL	Melilotus	0–250	–
	Forb, introduced	2FI	Forb, introduced	25–250	–
	white sagebrush	ARLU	Artemisia ludoviciana	50–200	–
	stiff goldenrod	OLRI	Oligoneuron rigidum	25–150	–
	common mullein	VETH	Verbascum thapsus	25–125	–
	Cuman ragweed	AMPS	Ambrosia psilostachya	25–125	–
	curly dock	RUCR	Rumex crispus	0–125	–
	white heath aster	SYER	Symphyotrichum ericoides	25–125	–
	American licorice	GLLE3	Glycyrrhiza lepidota	25–125	–
	western yarrow	ACMIO	Achillea millefolium var. occidentalis	25–125	–
	Forb, native	2FN	Forb, native	0–125	–
	swamp verbena	VEHA2	Verbena hastata	0–100	–
	Missouri goldenrod	SOMI2	Solidago missouriensis	25–100	–
	silverleaf Indian breadroot	PEAR6	Pediomelum argophyllum	0–75	–
	slimflower scurfpea	PSTE5	Psoralidium tenuiflorum	0–75	–
	false boneset	BREU	Brickellia eupatorioides	0–50	–
	starry false lily of the valley	MAST4	Maianthemum stellatum	0–25	–
	Maximilian sunflower	HEMA2	Helianthus maximiliani	0–25	–
	dotted blazing star	LIPU	Liatris punctata	0–25	–
	northern bedstraw	GABO2	Galium boreale	0–25	–
	showy ticktrefoil	DECA7	Desmodium canadense	0–25	–
	flatspine stickseed	LAOCO	Lappula occidentalis var. occidentalis	0–25	–
Shrub/Vine
8	Shrub			250–500
	western snowberry	SYOC	Symphoricarpos occidentalis	125–500	–
	Shrub (>.5m)	2SHRUB	Shrub (>.5m)	0–125	–
	chokecherry	PRVI	Prunus virginiana	0–125	–
	western poison ivy	TORY	Toxicodendron rydbergii	25–125	–
	rose	ROSA5	Rosa	25–125	–
	leadplant	AMCA6	Amorpha canescens	0–75	–
Tree
9	Tree			0–125
	American elm	ULAM	Ulmus americana	0–125	–
	boxelder	ACNE2	Acer negundo	0–125	–
	bur oak	QUMA2	Quercus macrocarpa	0–125	–
	green ash	FRPE	Fraxinus pennsylvanica	0–125	–
	common hackberry	CEOC	Celtis occidentalis	0–125	–
	plains cottonwood	PODEM	Populus deltoides ssp. monilifera	0–125	–
	Tree	2TREE	Tree	0–125	–

Table 12. Community 3.1 plant community composition

Group	Common name	Symbol	Scientific name	Annual production (lb/acre)	Foliar cover (%)
Grass/Grasslike
1	Warm-Season Tallgrass			0–34
	big bluestem	ANGE	Andropogon gerardii	0–34	–
	switchgrass	PAVI2	Panicum virgatum	0–34	–
	Grass, perennial	2GP	Grass, perennial	0–34	–
2	Warm-Season Midgrass			0–85
	dropseed	SPORO	Sporobolus	34–170	–
	little bluestem	SCSC	Schizachyrium scoparium	0–85	–
	sideoats grama	BOCU	Bouteloua curtipendula	0–51	–
	Grass, perennial	2GP	Grass, perennial	0–34	–
3	Cool-Season Rhizomatous Grass			17–170
	western wheatgrass	PASM	Pascopyrum smithii	17–170	–
4	Cool-Season Bunchgrass			17–85
	prairie Junegrass	KOMA	Koeleria macrantha	17–51	–
	Scribner's rosette grass	DIOLS	Dichanthelium oligosanthes var. scribnerianum	0–34	–
	Grass, perennial	2GP	Grass, perennial	0–34	–
5	Grass-like			17–85
	Pennsylvania sedge	CAPE6	Carex pensylvanica	17–51	–
	Grass-like (not a true grass)	2GL	Grass-like (not a true grass)	0–51	–
	clustered field sedge	CAPR5	Carex praegracilis	0–34	–
6	Non-Native Grass			510–935
	Kentucky bluegrass	POPR	Poa pratensis	425–850	–
	smooth brome	BRIN2	Bromus inermis	85–510	–
	cheatgrass	BRTE	Bromus tectorum	0–170	–
Forb
7	Forb			170–425
	Forb, introduced	2FI	Forb, introduced	34–255	–
	sweetclover	MELIL	Melilotus	0–170	–
	western yarrow	ACMIO	Achillea millefolium var. occidentalis	17–136	–
	Cuman ragweed	AMPS	Ambrosia psilostachya	17–119	–
	white sagebrush	ARLU	Artemisia ludoviciana	34–119	–
	stiff goldenrod	OLRI	Oligoneuron rigidum	17–119	–
	common mullein	VETH	Verbascum thapsus	17–102	–
	curly dock	RUCR	Rumex crispus	0–85	–
	white heath aster	SYER	Symphyotrichum ericoides	17–85	–
	silverleaf Indian breadroot	PEAR6	Pediomelum argophyllum	0–68	–
	slimflower scurfpea	PSTE5	Psoralidium tenuiflorum	0–68	–
	swamp verbena	VEHA2	Verbena hastata	0–68	–
	American licorice	GLLE3	Glycyrrhiza lepidota	0–51	–
	Missouri goldenrod	SOMI2	Solidago missouriensis	17–51	–
	Forb, native	2FN	Forb, native	0–51	–
	flatspine stickseed	LAOCO	Lappula occidentalis var. occidentalis	0–17	–
Shrub/Vine
8	Shrub			17–85
	western snowberry	SYOC	Symphoricarpos occidentalis	17–68	–
	Shrub (>.5m)	2SHRUB	Shrub (>.5m)	0–51	–
	rose	ROSA5	Rosa	17–51	–
	western poison ivy	TORY	Toxicodendron rydbergii	0–34	–
Tree
9	Tree			0–34
	American elm	ULAM	Ulmus americana	0–34	–
	boxelder	ACNE2	Acer negundo	0–34	–
	green ash	FRPE	Fraxinus pennsylvanica	0–34	–
	bur oak	QUMA2	Quercus macrocarpa	0–34	–
	common hackberry	CEOC	Celtis occidentalis	0–34	–
	plains cottonwood	PODEM	Populus deltoides ssp. monilifera	0–34	–
	Tree	2TREE	Tree	0–34	–

Interpretations

Animal community

Grazing by domestic livestock is one of the major income-producing industries in the area. Rangeland in this area may provide year-long forage for cattle, sheep, or horses. During the dormant period, the protein levels of the forage may be lower than the minimum needed to meet livestock (primarily cattle and sheep)requirements. The following table lists suggested stocking rates for cattle under continuous season-long grazing under normal growing conditions. These are conservative estimates that should be used only as guidelines in the initial stages of the conservation planning process. Often, the current plant composition does not entirely match any particular plant community (as described in this ecological site description). Because of this, a field visit is recommended, in all cases, to document plant composition and production. More precise carrying capacity estimates should eventually be calculated using this information along with animal preference data, particularly when grazers other than cattle are involved. With consultation of the land manager, more intensive grazing management may result in improved harvest efficiencies and increased carrying capacity.

Production and Carrying Capacity*
Community 1.1, Reference Community: 3,400 lbs/acre, 0.93 AUM/acre
Community 1.2 At-Risk Community: 2,700 lbs/ac, 0.74 AUM/acre
Community 2.1, Native/Invasive Grass Community: 2,500 lbs/ac, 0,69 AUM/acre

*Based upon the following conditions: continuous season-long grazing by cattle under average growing conditions, 25 percent harvest efficiency. Air dry forage requirements based on 3 percent of animal body weight, or 912 lbs/AU/month.

WILDLIFE INTERPRETATIONS:
Major Land Resource Area (MLRA) 66 lies primarily within the Mixed-grass prairie ecosystem. Though European settlers have converted about a quarter of this landscape to farmland, the majority of the prairie is still intact. This area still consists of diverse grassland habitats interspersed with varying densities of depressional wetlands and limited woody riparian corridors. These habitats historically provided critical life cycle components for the grassland birds, prairie dogs, and herds of roaming bison, elk, and pronghorn. Bobcats, wolves, and mountain lions occupied the apex predator niche. Diverse populations of small mammals and insects still provide a bountiful prey base for raptors and omnivores such as coyotes, foxes, raccoons, and opossums. In addition, a wide variety of reptiles and amphibians thrive in this landscape.

The Mixed-Grass Prairie was a disturbance-driven ecosystem with fire, herbivory, and climate functioning as the primary disturbances. Following European settlement, elimination of fire, overgrazing, and some habitat fragmentation significantly altered the appearance and functionality of the entire ecosystem. Bison and prairie dogs were historically keystone species, but free-roaming bison herds have been extirpated in this region. The loss of bison and fire as ecological drivers greatly influenced the character of the remaining native grasslands and the habitats that they provide. Fragmentation has reduced habitat quality for numerous area-sensitive species, as highlighted by the decline of the greater prairie chicken.

Historically, an ecological mosaic of the sites provided habitat for species requiring unfragmented grasslands. Most of these important habitat features and components are intact, providing upland nesting habitat for grassland birds and game birds; nesting and escape cover for waterfowl; forbs and insects for brood-rearing habitat; and a forage source for small and large herbivores.

Disruption of the natural fire regime and lack of appropriate grazing management are the greatest threats to the ecosystem dynamics today. Tree and shrub encroachment from lack of fire creates habitat that favors generalist species such as American robin and mourning dove, and provides perches for raptors, increasing the predation mortality on native bird populations. Introduced species such as smooth bromegrass, Kentucky bluegrass, nodding plumeless thistle (musk thistle), and Canada thistle further degrade the biological integrity of many areas of the prairie.

Hydrological functions

Water is the principal factor limiting forage production on this site. This site is dominated by soils in hydrologic group B, with localized areas in hydrologic group A. Runoff potential for this site varies from very low to low depending on soil hydrologic group and ground cover. In many cases, areas with greater than 75 percent ground cover have the greatest potential for high infiltration and lower runoff. An example of an exception would be where rhizomatous grasses form a strong sod and dominate the site. Areas where ground cover is less than 50 percent have the greatest potential to have reduced infiltration and higher runoff (refer to Section 4, NRCS National Engineering Handbook for runoff quantities and hydrologic curves).

Recreational uses

This site provides hunting, hiking, photography, bird watching, and other opportunities. The wide varieties of plants that bloom from spring until fall have an aesthetic value that appeals to visitors.

Wood products

This site can be used as a source of firewood.

Other products

Seed harvest of native plant species can provide additional income on this site.

Other information

Field Offices (Counties)
Nebraska:
Ainsworth, (Brown, Keya Paha, and Rock)
Neligh, (Antelope)
O'Neill, (Holt )
Valentine, (Cherry)

South Dakota:
Burke, (Gregory)
Martin, (Bennett and Shannon)
White River, (Mellette and Todd)
Winner, (Tripp)

Supporting information

Inventory data references

Information presented here has been derived from NRCS clipping data and other inventory data. Field observations from trained range personnel were also used. Those involved in developing this site include Wayne Bachman, Soil Scientist, NRCS; Stan Boltz, Range Management Specialist, NRCS; Anna Ferguson, Soil Conservationist, NRCS; Roger Hammer, Soil Scientist, NRCS; Dana Larsen, Range Management Specialist, NRCS; Dave Schmidt, Rangeland Management Specialist, NRCS; Kim Stine, Rangeland Management Specialist, NRCS.

Other references

High Plains Regional Climate Center, University of Nebraska.(http://www.hprcc.unl.edu/)
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service. 2003. National Range and Pasture Handbook. (https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/national-range-and-pasture-handbook)
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service. National Water and Climate Center. (http://www.wcc.nrcs.usda.gov/climate).
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service. 2021b. National Soil Information System. (https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/resources/education-and-teaching-materials/national-soil-information-system-nasis).
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service. 2021c. National soil survey handbook, title 430-VI. (http://soils.usda.gov/technical/handbook/).
Soil Survey Staff. 2021. Web soil survey. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service. (https://websoilsurvey.sc.egov.usda.gov/)
USDA, NRCS. 2001. The PLANTS Database, Version 3.1 (http://plants.usda.gov). National Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, LA USA.
USDA, NRCS, various published Soil Surveys

Contributors

Stan Boltz
Doug Whisenhunt
Nadine Bishop

Approval

Suzanne Mayne-Kinney, 11/18/2024

Acknowledgments

Many thanks to the members of the soils, local practitioners and technical teams, as well as the editor.

This Ecological Site was approved for publication in March of 2021.

Non-discrimination statement
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incident.

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To file a program discrimination complaint, complete the USDA Program Discrimination Complaint Form, AD-3027, found online at How to File a Program Discrimination Complaint and at any USDA office or write a letter addressed to USDA and provide in the letter all of the information requested in the form. To request a copy of the complaint form, call (866) 632-9992. Submit your completed form or letter to USDA by: (1) mail: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Office of the Assistant Secretary for Civil Rights, 1400 Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, D.C. 20250-9410; (2) fax: (202) 690-7442; or (3) email: program.intake@usda.gov.

Rangeland health reference sheet

Interpreting Indicators of Rangeland Health is a qualitative assessment protocol used to determine ecosystem condition based on benchmark characteristics described in the Reference Sheet. A suite of 17 (or more) indicators are typically considered in an assessment. The ecological site(s) representative of an assessment location must be known prior to applying the protocol and must be verified based on soils and climate. Current plant community cannot be used to identify the ecological site.

Author(s)/participant(s)	Original Author: Stan Boltz Version V participants: Emily Helms, Nadine Bishop, Jeff Nichols
Contact for lead author	Jeff Nichols, State Range Conservationist for Nebraska - jeffrey.nichols@usda.gov
Date	11/18/2024
Approved by	Suzanne Mayne-Kinney
Approval date
Composition (Indicators 10 and 12) based on	Annual Production

Indicators

Number and extent of rills:
None. Rills are not expected on this site.
Presence of water flow patterns:
None. Water Flow patterns are not expected on this site.
Number and height of erosional pedestals or terracettes:
None. Pedestals and terracettes are not expected on this site.
Bare ground from Ecological Site Description or other studies (rock, litter, lichen, moss, plant canopy are not bare ground):
Bare ground is typically 5 percent or less. Multi-year drought and/or wildfire can increase bare ground to 10 percent for up to two years following the disturbance.

Bare ground is exposed mineral soil that is not covered by vegetation (basal and/or foliar canopy), standing dead vegetation, gravel/rock, and visible biological crust (e.g., lichen, mosses, algae).
Number of gullies and erosion associated with gullies:
None. Gullies are not expected on this site.
Extent of wind scoured, blowouts and/or depositional areas:
None. Wind-scoured areas and depositional areas are not expected on this site.
Amount of litter movement (describe size and distance expected to travel):
Litter of small and medium size classes will move after average to high rainfall events. Litter does not travel far (less than 6 inches or 15 cm), typically being trapped in small bunches by the extensive vegetative cover. Litter movement may be fairly excessive after major runoff or flooding events. Small woody debris may move up to 6 inches (15 cm). Fine litter may move up to 12 inches (30.5 cm). Numerous debris dams or vegetative barriers may be present.
Soil surface (top few mm) resistance to erosion (stability values are averages - most sites will show a range of values):
Soil stability ratings should typically be 5 to 6, normally 6. Surface organic matter adheres to the soil surface. Soil surface fragments will typically retain structure indefinitely when dipped in distilled water.
Soil surface structure and SOM content (include type of structure and A-horizon color and thickness):
The A-horizon should be 3 to 15 inches (7.5 to 38 cm) thick. Soil is dark grayish brown, dark grayish brown, or dark gray (values of 4 to 5) when dry and very dark grayish brown, very dark gray, or black (values of 2 to 4 ) when moist. Structure is typically weak fine granular, weak medium granular or moderate medium granular.

Cass, Bridgeport, and Onita are the primary soil series correlated to this site.
Effect of community phase composition (relative proportion of different functional groups) and spatial distribution on infiltration and runoff:
The functional/structural groups provide a combination of rooting depths and structure which positively influences infiltration. Combination of shallow and deep rooted species (mid & tall rhizomatous and tufted perennial cool season grasses) with fine and coarse roots positively influences infiltration. Large amounts of Kentucky bluegrass or encroachment of deciduous trees and eastern redcedar may have an adverse impact on infiltration and runoff.

The expected composition of the plant community is approximately 80 to 90 percent perennial grasses and grass-likes, 5 to 10 percent forbs, 2 to 7 percent shrubs and 0 to 2 percent trees. The perennial grass and grass-like component is made up of C3, bunch grasses (25-65%); C4, rhizomatous, tall grasses (25-45%); C3, rhizomatous grasses (10-20%); C4, mid- grasses (10-20%); and grass-likes (2-10%).
Presence and thickness of compaction layer (usually none; describe soil profile features which may be mistaken for compaction on this site):
None. A compaction layer should not be present,
Functional/Structural Groups (list in order of descending dominance by above-ground annual-production or live foliar cover using symbols: >>, >, = to indicate much greater than, greater than, and equal to):

Dominant:
Phase 1.1.
1.Native, perennial, C4, rhizomatous tallgrass, 850-1530 #/ac, 25-45% (2 species minimum): big bluestem, switchgrass, Indiangrass, marsh muhly

Phase 1.2
1. Native, perennial, C3, rhizomatous grass, 405-810 #/ac, 15-30% (1 species minimum): western wheatgrass. 2. Non-native, C3 grass, 405-810 #/ac, 15-30% (2 species minimum): Kentucky bluegrass, smooth brome, cheatgrass

Phase 1.3.
2. Non-native, C3 grass, 250-875 #/ac, 10-35% (2 species minimum): Kentucky bluegrass, smooth brome, cheatgrass.

Sub-dominant:
Phase 1.1.
1. Native, perennial C3, rhizomatous grass, 340-680 #/ac, 10-20% (1 species minimum): western wheatgrass.
2. Native, perennial, C4 midgrass, 340-510 #/ac, 10-25% (2 species minimum): little bluestem, sideoats grama, dropseed.
3. Native, perennial, C3, bunchgrass, 170-510 #/ac, 5-15% (2 species minimum): green needlegrass, porcupinegrass, slender wheatgrass, Canada wildrye, prairie Junegrass, Scribner's rosette grass.

Phase 1.2.
1. Native, perennial, C4, tallgrass, 135-405 #/ac, 5-15% (1 species minimum): big bluestem, switchgrass.

Phase 1.3.
1. Shrubs, 250-500 #/ac, 10-20% (3 species minimum): western snowberry, western poison ivy, rose, chokecherry, leadplant and other shrubs that vary from location to location.
2. Native, perennial, C3, rhizomatous grass, 125-500 #/ac, 5-20% (1 species minimum): western wheatgrass.
3. Native forbs, 125-375 #/ac, 5-15% (7 species minimum): white sagebrush, stiff goldenrod, Cuman ragweed, western yarrow, white heath aster, American licorice, Missouri goldenrod and other forbs that vary from location to location.

Other:
Minor - Phase 1.1.
1. Native forbs, 170-340 #/ac, 5-10%: forbs present will vary from location to location.
2. Grass-likes, 68-340 #/ac, 2-10%: Pennsylvania sedge, clustered field sedge.
3. Shrubs, 68-238 #/ac, 2-7%: shrubs present will vary from location to location.

Minor - Phase 1.2.
1. Native forbs, 135-270 #/ac, 5-10%: forbs present vary from location to location.
2. Native, perennial, C4, midgrass, 54-270 #/ac, 2-10%: little bluestem, sideoats grama, dropseed.
3. Shrubs, 54-270 #/ac, 2-10%: shrubs present vary from location to location.
4. Native, perennial, C3, bunchgrass, 27-270 #/ac, 1-10%: green needlegrass, porcupinegrass, Scribner's rosettegrass. 5. Grass-likes, 27-135 #/ac, 1-5%: Pennsylvania sedge, clustered field sedge

Minor - Phase 1.3.
1. Native, perennial, C4, tallgrass, 50-250 #/ac, 2-10%: big bluestem, switchgrass, Indiangrass, marsh muhly.
2. Native, Perennial, C4, midgrass, 50-250 #/ac, 2-10%: little bluestem, sideoats grama, dropseed.
3. Native, perennial, C3 bunchgrass, 50-250 #/ac, 2-10%: green needlegrass, porcupinegrass, slender wheatgrass, Canada wildrye, prairie Junegrass, Scribner's rosette grass.
4. Grass-likes, 25-125 #/ac, 1-5%: Pennsylvania sedge, clustered sedge.
5. Native trees, 0-125 #/ac, 0-5%: American elm, boxelder, bur oak, green ash, common hackberry, plains cottonwood.

Trace - Phase 1.1.
1. Native trees, 0-68 #/ac, 0-2%: trees present will vary from location to location.

Trace - Phase 1.2.
1. Native trees, 0-54 #/ac, 0-2%: trees present vary from location to location.

Additional:
The Reference Community or Big Bluestem-Western Wheatgrass-Green Needlegrass Community (1.1) consists of eight F/S groups. These groups are, in order of relative abundance, native, perennial, C4, tallgrass; native, perennial, C3, rhizomatous grass; native, perennial, C4, midgrass = native, perennial, C3, bunchgrass; native forb; grass-like; shrub; and native tree.

The At-Risk Community (1.2) consists of nine F/S groups. These groups are, in order of relative abundance, native, perennial, C3, rhizomatous grass; non-native grass; native, perennial, C4, tallgrass; native forb; native, perennial, C4, midgrass = shrubs; native, perennial, C3, bunchgrass; grass-like; and native trees.

The Excessive Litter Community (1.3) also consists of nine groups which are non-native grass; shrubs; native, C3, rhizomatous grass; native forbs; native, perennial, C4, tallgrass = native, perennial, C4, midgrass = native, perennial, C3 bunchgrass; grass-likes; native tree.
Amount of plant mortality and decadence (include which functional groups are expected to show mortality or decadence):
Bunch grasses have strong, healthy centers with few (less than 3 percent) dead centers. Shrubs may show some dead branches (less than 5 percent) as plants age.
Average percent litter cover (%) and depth ( in):
Plant litter cover is evenly distributed throughout the site and is expected to be 80 to 90 percent and at a depth of 0.50 to 1.0 inch (1.3 to 2.6 cm). Kentucky bluegrass excessive litter can negatively impact the functionality of this site.
Expected annual annual-production (this is TOTAL above-ground annual-production, not just forage annual-production):
The representative value (RV) for annual production is 3,400 pounds per acre on an air dry weight basis. Low and High production years should yield 2,500 and 4,300 pounds per acre respectively.
Potential invasive (including noxious) species (native and non-native). List species which BOTH characterize degraded states and have the potential to become a dominant or co-dominant species on the ecological site if their future establishment and growth is not actively controlled by management interventions. Species that become dominant for only one to several years (e.g., short-term response to drought or wildfire) are not invasive plants. Note that unlike other indicators, we are describing what is NOT expected in the reference state for the ecological site:
No non-native invasive species are present. Annual bromes (cheatgrass and Japanese/field), leafy spurge, Canada thistle, Kentucky bluegrass, smooth brome, Russian olive, and eastern redcedar are known invasives that have the potential to become dominant or co-dominant on this site. Consult the state noxious weed and state watch lists for potential invasive species.

Note: species that become dominant for only one to several years (e.g., short-term response to drought or wildfire) are not invasive plants.
Perennial plant reproductive capability:
All perennial species exhibit high vigor relative to recent weather conditions. Perennial grasses should have vigorous rhizomes or tillers; vegetative and reproductive structures are not stunted. All perennial species should be capable of reproducing annually.

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Ecosystem states

1. Reference State

2. Native/Invaded Grass State

3. Invaded Grass State

4. Invaded Woody State

5. Sodbusted State

6. Lower Woody Draw State

7. Upper Woody Draw State

States 1, 5, 6 and 7 (additional transitions)

1. Reference State

5. Sodbusted State

6. Lower Woody Draw State

7. Upper Woody Draw State

States 2, 5, 6 and 7 (additional transitions)

2. Native/Invaded Grass State

5. Sodbusted State

6. Lower Woody Draw State

7. Upper Woody Draw State

States 3, 7 and 4 (additional transitions)

3. Invaded Grass State

7. Upper Woody Draw State

4. Invaded Woody State

T1A	-	Invasion of non-native cool-season grasses, long term (>10 years) seasonal grazing in summer, or rotational grazing with inadequate growing season recovery periods. Non-use with no fire.
T1B	-	Coniferous woody encroachment with no prescribed burning or woody species management.
T1C	-	Tillage to facilitate production agriculture.
T1D	-	Flooding, deciduous woody encroachment with no prescribed burning or woody species management.
T1E	-	Deciduous woody encroachment with no prescribed burning or woody species management.
R2A	-	Long-term (> 15 years) prescribed grazing in spring or spring and fall. This restoration may not be feasible.
T2A	-	Continued invasion of non-native cool-season grasses facilitated by seasonal grazing in summer, continuous season long grazing, or non-use with no fire.
T2B	-	Coniferous woody encroachment with no prescribed burning or woody species management.
T2C	-	Tillage to facilitate production agriculture.
T2D	-	Flooding, deciduous woody encroachment with prescribed grazing and no prescribed burning or woody species management.
T2E	-	Deciduous woody encroachment with no prescribed burning or woody species management.
T3A	-	Coniferous woody encroachment with no prescribed burning or woody species management.
T3B	-	Tillage to facilitate production agriculture.
T3C	-	Flooding, deciduous woody encroachment with prescribed grazing and no prescribed burning or woody species management.
T3D	-	Deciduous woody encroachment with no prescribed burning or woody species management.
R4A	-	Prescribed burning, wildfire, timber harvest, brush management.
R4B	-	Prescribed burning, wildfire, timber harvest, brush management.
R4C	-	Prescribed burning, wildfire, timber harvest, brush management.
R4D	-	Prescribed burning, wildfire, timber harvest, brush management.
R4E	-	Prescribed burning, wildfire, timber harvest, and brush management
R4F	-	Prescribed burning, wildfire, timber harvest, brush management.
T5A	-	Coniferous woody encroachment with no prescribed burning or woody species management.
T5B	-	Flooding, deciduous woody encroachment with prescribed grazing and no prescribed burning or woody species management.
T5C	-	Deciduous woody encroachment with no prescribed burning or woody species management.
R6A	-	No flooding with prescribed burning, wildfire, timber harvest, brush management and prescribed grazing in mid-summer.
R6B	-	No flooding with prescribed burning, wildfire, timber harvest, brush management and continuous season-long or continuous season grazing.
R6C	-	No flooding with prescribed burning, wildfire, timber harvest, brush management and continuous season-long or continuous season grazing.
T6A	-	Eastern redcedar encroachment with no prescribed burning or woody species management.
R6D	-	No flooding with prescribed burning, wildfire, timber harvest, brush management and grazing in mid-summer.
R7A	-	Prescribed burning, wildfire, timber harvest, brush management followed by long-term prescribed grazing.
R7B	-	Prescribed burning, wildfire, timber harvest, brush management.
R7C	-	Prescribed burning, wildfire, timber harvest, brush management.
T7A	-	Coniferous woody encroachment with no prescribed burning or woody species management.
R7D	-	Prescribed burning, wildfire, timber harvest, brush management.

State 1 submodel, plant communities

1.1. Reference Community

1.2. At-Risk Community

1.1A	-	Grazing or haying with inadequate growing season recovery periods.
1.2A	-	Prescribed grazing or haying with adequate growing season recovery periods.

State 2 submodel, plant communities

2.1. Native/Invasive Grass Community

State 3 submodel, plant communities

3.1. Invaded Grass Community

State 4 submodel, plant communities

4.1. Invaded Woody Community

State 5 submodel, plant communities

5.1. Reseeded Native Grass Community

5.2. Seeded Pasture Community

5.3. Natural Reclamation Community

State 6 submodel, plant communities

6.1. Plains Cottonwood (Populus deltoides ssp monilifera) Regeneration Community

6.2. Mature Plains Cottonwood (Populus deltoides ssp monolifera), No Regeneration Community

6.3. Immature Green Ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica) Community

6.4. Scattered Mature Green Ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica) Community

6.5. Green Ash-Boxelder-Common Hackberry (Fraxinus pennsylvanica-Acer negundo-Celtis occidentalis) Regeneration Community

6.6. Green Ash-Box Elder (Fraxinus pennsylvanica-Acer negundo) No Regeneration Community

Communities 1 and 5 (additional pathways)

6.1. Plains Cottonwood (Populus deltoides ssp monilifera) Regeneration Community

6.5. Green Ash-Boxelder-Common Hackberry (Fraxinus pennsylvanica-Acer negundo-Celtis occidentalis) Regeneration Community

6.1A	-	No flooding with continuous seasonal or continuous season long grazing.
6.1B	-	No flooding with long-term prescribed grazing.
6.2A	-	Flooding and prescribed grazing with seedling establishment.
6.3A	-	Flooding with prescribed grazing.
6.3B	-	Long-term absence of flooding with continuous season long or continuous seasonal grazing or with heavy wildlife browsing.
6.3C	-	Long-term absence of flooding with prescribed grazing.
6.5A	-	Flooding with prescribed grazing.
6.5B	-	Long-term absence of flooding with continuous season long or continuous seasonal grazing or with heavy wildlife browsing.
6.6A	-	Long-term absence of flooding with continuous season long, continuous seasonal grazing.

State 7 submodel, plant communities

7.1. Seedling Green Ash-Bur Oak (Fraxinus pennsylvanica-Quercus macrocarpa) Community

7.2. Immature Green Ash-Bur Oak (Fraxinus pennsylvanica-Quercus macrocarpa) Community

7.3. Mature Green Ash-Bur Oak (Fraxinus pennsylvanica-Quercus macrocarpa) Community

7.4. Scattered Mature Green Ash-Bur Oak (Fraxinus pennsylvanica-Quercus macrocarpa), No Regeneration Community

7.5. Green Ash-Bur Oak (Fraxinus pennsylvanica-Quercus macrocarpa)/Immature Eastern Redcedar-Ponderosa Pine (Juniperus virginiana-Pinus ponderosa) Community

7.1A	-	Time with moderate or light prescribed grazing and no fire.
7.2A	-	Time with moderate or light prescribed grazing and no fire.
7.3A	-	Time with continuous season long or continuous seasonal grazing and no fire.
7.3B	-	Coniferous woody encroachment with no fire or brush management.
7.4A	-	Coniferous woody encroachment with no fire or brush management.
7.5A	-	Prescribed burning, brush management for coniferous woody species removal.
7.5B	-	Prescribed burning, brush management for coniferous woody species removal.

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Natural ResourcesConservation Service

Ecological site R066XY026NE

Loamy Overflow

Last updated: 11/18/2024 Accessed: 12/22/2024

General information

Figure 1. Mapped extent

MLRA notes

Classification relationships

Ecological site concept

Associated sites

Similar sites

Figure 2. Block diagram of the Loamy Overflow site in MLRA 66.

Table 1. Dominant plant species

Natural Resources
Conservation Service

Last updated: 11/18/2024
Accessed: 12/22/2024