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Ecological site R102AY014SD

Shallow Gravel

Last updated: 6/27/2024
Accessed: 11/21/2024

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General information

Provisional. A provisional ecological site description has undergone quality control and quality assurance review. It contains a working state and transition model and enough information to identify the ecological site.

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Figure 1. Mapped extent

Areas shown in blue indicate the maximum mapped extent of this ecological site. Other ecological sites likely occur within the highlighted areas. It is also possible for this ecological site to occur outside of highlighted areas if detailed soil survey has not been completed or recently updated.

MLRA notes

Major Land Resource Area (MLRA): 102A–Rolling Till Prairie

The Rolling Till Prairie (102A) is located within the Central Feed Grains and Livestock Land Resource Region. It spans 3 states (Minnesota 58 percent, South Dakota 42 percent, and small part in North Dakota), encompassing over 16,000 square miles (Figure 1). The elevation ranges from approximately over 2,000 feet above sea level (ASL) on the Prairie Coteau in Northeastern South Dakota to about 1,000 feet ASL on lowlands. The dominate landform in this area are stagnation moraines, end moraines, glacial outwash plains, terraces, and flood plains. The area is dominated by till covered moraines. The stagnation moraines are gently undulating to steep and have many depressions and poorly defined drainages. Small outwash areas are adjacent to the watercourses. The Cretaceous Pierre Shale underlies the till in the most of the area. Precambrian rocks also occur at depth. Granite is quarried near Milbank, South Dakota and outcrops of Sioux Quartzite are common. (USDA-NRCS 2006).

The dominant soil order in this MLRA is Mollisols. The soils in the area dominantly have a frigid soil temperature regime, an aquic or udic soil moisture regime, and mixed mineralogy. They generally are very deep, well drained to very poorly drained. This area supports true prairie vegetation characterized by big bluestem (Andropogon gerardii), little bluestem (Schizachyrium scoparium), porcupinegrass (Hesperostipa spartea), and green needlegrass (Nassella viridula). Prairie cordgrass (Spartina pectinata) commonly grows in wet areas. (USDA-NRCS 2006).

Classification relationships

Major Land Resource Area (MLRA): Rolling Till Prairie (102A) (USDA-NRCS 2006)

USFS Subregions: North Central Glaciated Plains Section (251B); Upper Minnesota River-Des Moines Lobe Subsection (251Ba); Outer Coteau des Prairies Subsection (251Bb); Northwest Iowa Plains Subsection (251Bd); Minnesota and Northeast Iowa Morainal-Oak Savannah Section (222M); Alexandria Moraine-Hardwood Hills Subsection (222Ma) (Cleland et al. 2007).

US EPA Level IV Ecoregion: Tewaukon/Big Stone Stagnation Moraine (46e), Prairie Coteau (46k), Prairie Coteau Escarpment (46l), Big Sioux Basin (46m), Minnesota River Prairie (46o), Des Moines Lobe (47b) , Lake Agassiz Plains (48d), Alexandria Moraines and Detroit Lakes Outwash Plain (51j) (USEPA 2013)

Ecological site concept

The Shallow Gravel ecological site typically occurs in the upland areas, but some maybe located on a higher floodplain. Soils are somewhat excessively drained and has sand and gravel within 10 to 20 inches of the soil surface. In some areas the surface layer may consist of stony to extremely stony. The water holding capacity of the sand and gravel is low, leaving less soil moisture for plant growth, production is lower, and species composition will tend towards more drought tolerant. Slopes can range from 0 to 40 percent. Vegetation in the Reference State includes needleandthread, little bluestem, and prairie dropseed. Forbs include cudweed sagewort, prairie coneflower, and western ragweed. Non-native grasses such as Kentucky bluegrass, smooth brome may invade the site due to changes in disturbance regime.

Associated sites

R102AY009SD	Sandy These sites occur on upland areas. The soils are well to moderately well drained and have surface and subsoil textures which are sandy loam, fine sandy loam, and loamy very fine sand. The central concept soil series is Egeland, Embden, and Swenoda, but other series are included.
R102AY010SD	Loamy These sites occur on upland areas. The soils are well drained and have sand and gravel at a depth of greater than 20 inches below the soil surface. The central concept soil series is Estelline, Brandt, and Fordville, but other series are included.
R102AY012SD	Thin Upland These sites occur on upland areas. The soils are well drained and will effervesce with acid at or near the surface. The central concept soil series is Buse, Kampeska, and Langhei, but other series are included.
R102AY016SD	Very Shallow These sites occur on upland areas. The soils are excessively drained and have sand and gravel within 10 inches of the soil surface. The central concept soil series is Sioux and Sandberg, but other series are included.

Similar sites

R102AY009SD	Sandy The Sandy site occurs in a similar landscape position and does not have sand and gravel within 10 to 20 inches of the soil surface. The Sandy site will have more big bluestem and higher production than the Shallow Gravel site.
R102AY010SD	Loamy The Loamy site occurs in a similar landscape position and does not have sand and gravel within 10 to 20 inches of the soil surface. The Loamy site will have more big bluestem, less needleandthread and higher production than the Shallow Gravel site.

R102AY009SD

Sandy

The Sandy site occurs in a similar landscape position and does not have sand and gravel within 10 to 20 inches of the soil surface. The Sandy site will have more big bluestem and higher production than the Shallow Gravel site.

R102AY010SD

Loamy

The Loamy site occurs in a similar landscape position and does not have sand and gravel within 10 to 20 inches of the soil surface. The Loamy site will have more big bluestem, less needleandthread and higher production than the Shallow Gravel site.

Table 1. Dominant plant species

Tree	Not specified
Shrub	Not specified
Herbaceous	(1) Hesperostipa comata ssp. comata (2) Schizachyrium scoparium

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Physiographic features

The Shallow Gravel ecological site typically occurs in the upland areas, but some maybe located on a higher floodplain.

Table 2. Representative physiographic features

Landforms	(1) Upland
Elevation	1,000 – 2,000 ft
Slope	40%
Water table depth	80 in
Aspect	Aspect is not a significant factor

Climatic features

MLRA 102A is considered to have a continental climate – cold winters and relatively hot summers, low to moderate humidity, light rainfall, and much sunshine. Extremes in temperature may also abound. The climate is the result of this MLRA’s location near the geographic center of North America. There are few natural barriers on the Northern Great Plains and air masses move freely across the plains and account for rapid changes in temperature.

Annual precipitation typically ranges from 21 to 27 inches per year. The average annual temperature is about 43°F. January is the coldest month with average temperatures ranging from about 5°F (Mahnomen 1 W, Minnesota (MN)), to about 14°F (Tracy, MN). July is the warmest month with temperatures averaging from about 69°F (Mahnomen 1 W, MN), to about 73°F (Tracy, MN). The range of normal average monthly temperatures between the coldest and warmest months is about 62°F. This large annual range attests to the continental nature of this area's climate. Hourly winds are estimated to average about 11 miles per hour (mph) annually, ranging from about 13 mph during the spring to about 10 mph during the summer. Daytime winds are generally stronger than nighttime and occasional strong storms may bring brief periods of high winds with gusts to more than 50 mph.

Growth of cool-season plants begins in early to mid-March, slowing or ceasing in late June. Warm-season plants begin growth about mid-May and continue to early or mid-September. Greenup of cool-season plants may occur in September and October when adequate soil moisture is present.

Table 3. Representative climatic features

Frost-free period (characteristic range)	112-127 days
Freeze-free period (characteristic range)	137-151 days
Precipitation total (characteristic range)	25-28 in
Frost-free period (actual range)	99-131 days
Freeze-free period (actual range)	130-153 days
Precipitation total (actual range)	24-28 in
Frost-free period (average)	120 days
Freeze-free period (average)	143 days
Precipitation total (average)	26 in

Characteristic range

Actual range

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Figure 2. Monthly precipitation range

Characteristic range

Actual range

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Figure 3. Monthly minimum temperature range

Characteristic range

Actual range

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Figure 4. Monthly maximum temperature range

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Figure 5. Monthly average minimum and maximum temperature

Figure 6. Annual precipitation pattern

Figure 7. Annual average temperature pattern

Climate stations used

(1) ARLINGTON 1 W [USC00390281], Arlington, SD
(2) ARTICHOKE LAKE [USC00210287], Correll, MN
(3) BENSON [USC00210667], Benson, MN
(4) BROOKINGS 2 NE [USC00391076], Brookings, SD
(5) BROWNS VALLEY [USC00211063], Beardsley, MN
(6) CASTLEWOOD [USC00391519], Castlewood, SD
(7) CLARK [USC00391739], Clark, SD
(8) CLEAR LAKE [USC00391777], Clear Lake, SD
(9) FERGUS FALLS [USC00212768], Fergus Falls, MN
(10) FOSSTON 1 E [USC00212916], Fosston, MN
(11) GLENWOOD 2 WNW [USC00213174], Glenwood, MN
(12) LAKE WILSON [USC00214534], Lake Wilson, MN
(13) MAHNOMEN [USC00215012], Mahnomen, MN
(14) MELROSE [USC00215325], Melrose, MN
(15) MILAN 1 NW [USC00215400], Milan, MN
(16) MILBANK 4 NW [USC00395536], Milbank, SD
(17) MORRIS WC EXP STN [USC00215638], Hancock, MN
(18) PIPESTONE [USC00216565], Pipestone, MN
(19) ROY LAKE [USC00397326], Lake City, SD
(20) SISSETON [USC00397742], Sisseton, SD
(21) SUMMIT 1 W [USC00398116], Summit, SD
(22) TRACY [USC00218323], Tracy, MN
(23) TYLER [USC00218429], Tyler, MN
(24) WATERTOWN 1W [USC00398930], Watertown, SD
(25) WEBSTER [USC00399004], Webster, SD

Soil features

Table 4. Representative soil features

Surface texture	(1) Loam (2) Sandy loam
Family particle size	(1) Sandy
Drainage class	Somewhat excessively drained
Permeability class	Moderate
Soil depth	80 in
Surface fragment cover <=3"	5 – 10%
Surface fragment cover >3"	2%
Available water capacity (0-40in)	3 – 4 in
Calcium carbonate equivalent (0-40in)	15%
Electrical conductivity (0-40in)	2 mmhos/cm
Soil reaction (1:1 water) (0-40in)	6.1 – 8.4
Subsurface fragment volume <=3" (Depth not specified)	5 – 40%
Subsurface fragment volume >3" (Depth not specified)	2%

Ecological dynamics

The site which is located in the Prairie Pothole Region developed under Northern Great Plains climatic conditions and included natural influence of large herding herbivores and occasional fire. Changes will occur in the plant communities due to weather fluctuations and/or management actions. Under adverse impacts, a relatively rapid decline in vegetative vigor and composition can occur. Under favorable conditions the site has the potential to resemble the Reference State. Interpretations for this site are based primarily on the 1.1 Needleandthread-Little Bluestem-Prairie Dropseed Plant Community Phase. This community phase and the Reference State have been determined by study of rangeland relic areas, areas protected from excessive disturbance, and areas under long-term rotational grazing regimes. Trends in plant community dynamics ranging from heavily grazed to lightly grazed areas, seasonal use pastures, and historical accounts also have been considered.

This ecological site (ES) has been grazed by domestic livestock since they have been introduced into the area. The introduction of domestic livestock and the use of fencing and reliable water sources have changed the ecological dynamics of this site. Heavy continuous grazing (season-long grazing during the typical growing season of April through October and/or repeated seasonal grazing during the same time of year each year) without adequate recovery periods following grazing events causes departure from the 2.1 Needleandthread-Little Bluestem-Prairie Dropseed Plant Community Phase. Sedge (Carex) and blue grama (Bouteloua gracilis) will increase and eventually develop into a sod. Little bluestem will increase initially and then begin to decrease. Needleandthread, porcupine grass (Hesperostipa spartea), sideoats grama (Bouteloua curtipenula), big bluestem (Andropogon gerardii), and little bluestem will decrease in frequency and production. Extended periods of nonuse and/or lack of fire will result in excessive litter and a plant community dominated by cool-season grasses such as Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis) and smooth bromegrass (Bromus inermis).

Following the state and transition diagram are narratives for each of the described states and community phases. These may not represent every possibility, but they are the most prevalent and repeatable states/community phases. The plant composition tables shown below have been developed from the best available knowledge at the time of this revision. As more data are collected, some of these community phases and/or states may be revised or removed, and new ones may be added. The main purpose for including the descriptions here is to capture the current knowledge and experience at the time of this revision.

State and transition model

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Standard diagram

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Ecosystem states

1. Reference State

2. Native/Invaded State

3. Invaded State

4. Crop Production State

T1A	-	Heavy continuous grazing, no use, no fire, invasion
T1B	-	Tillage
T2A	-	No use, no fire, heavy continuous grazing
T2C	-	Tillage
R3A	-	Long term prescribed grazing, prescribed burning, long term prescribed grazing, seeding
T3	-	Tillage
R4A	-	Seeding
R4B	-	Seeding, abandonment of cropping

State 1 submodel, plant communities

1.1. Needleandthread-Little Bluestem-Prairie Dropseed

1.2. Blue Grama-Threadleaf Sedge-Needleandthread

1.1A	-	Heavy continuous grazing
1.2A	-	Prescribed grazing with recovery periods, prescribed burning

State 2 submodel, plant communities

2.1. Needleandthread-Little Bluestem-Prairie Dropseed

2.2. Blue Grama-Threadleaf Sedge-Kentucky Bluegrass

2.1A	-	Heavy continuous grazing
2.2A	-	Prescribed grazing with recovery periods

State 3 submodel, plant communities

3.1. Kentucky Bluegrass-Smooth Bromegrass

3.2. Kentucky Bluegrass Sod-Forbs

3.3. Annual Pioneer-Perennial Pioneer

3.1A	-	Heavy continuous grazing
3.3A	-	Time w/wo disturbances

State 4 submodel, plant communities

4.1. Annual Crops

State 1
Reference State

The Reference State represents the natural range of variability that dominated the dynamics of this ecological site (ES). This state was codominated by warm- and cool-season grasses. The primary disturbance mechanisms for this site in the reference condition included frequent fire and grazing by large herding ungulates. Timing of fires and grazing coupled with weather events dictated the dynamics that occurred within the natural range of variability. Mid- and tall-stature grass species can decline and a corresponding increase in short-stature warm-season grasses and cool-season grass-like species will occur.

Community 1.1
Needleandthread-Little Bluestem-Prairie Dropseed

Interpretations are based primarily on the 1.1 Needleandthead-Little Bluestem-Prairie Dropseed Plant Community Phase (this is also considered to be climax). This community phase was the most dominant both temporally and spatially. The prevailing climate and weather patterns favored the development of this community phase dominated by mid- and tall cool- and warm-season grasses such as needleandthread, little bluestem, prairie dropseed, and blue grama. Other grass and grass-likes species occurring include big bluestem, threadleaf sedge (Carex filifolia), porcupine grass (Hesperostipa spartea), plains muhly (Muhlenbergia cuspidata), western wheatgrass (Pascopyrum smithii), prairie Junegrass (Koeleria macrantha), and sand dropseed (Sporobolus cryptandrus). The vegetation consisted of about 75 percent grass and grass-like species, 15 percent forbs, and 10 percent shrubs. A variety of leguminous and nonleguminous perennial forbs are present in minor amounts. This is a naturally nitrogen deficient plant community. This plant community was resilient and well adapted to the Northern Great Plains climatic conditions. The diversity in plant species allowed for high drought tolerance. This was a sustainable plant community in regards to site/soil stability, watershed function, and biologic integrity.

Figure 8. Annual production by plant type (representative values) or group (midpoint values)

Table 5. Annual production by plant type

Plant type	Low (lb/acre)	Representative value (lb/acre)	High (lb/acre)
Grass/Grasslike	1450	2016	2505
Forb	105	240	420
Shrub/Vine	45	144	275
Total	1600	2400	3200

Figure 9. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). SD0204, Rolling Till Prairie, warm-season dominant, cool-season subdominant.. Warm-season dominant, cool-season subdominant..

Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun	Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec
J	F	M	A	M	J	J	A	S	O	N	D
0	0	3	7	17	25	25	15	7	1	0	0

Community 1.2
Blue Grama-Threadleaf Sedge-Needleandthread

This plant community evolved under heavy continuous grazing or from over utilization during extended drought periods. The potential plant community was made up of approximately 75 percent grasses and grass-like species, 15 percent forbs, and 10 percent shrubs. Dominant grass and grass-like species included blue grama, Threadleaf sedge, needleandthread and sideoats grama. Grasses of secondary importance included porcupine grass, sand dropseed, little bluestem, western wheatgrass, hairy grama (Bouteloua hirsuta), and threeawn (Aristida). Forbs commonly found in this plant community included cudweed sagewort (Artemisia ludoviciana), prairie coneflower (Ratibida columnifera), and western ragweed (Ambrosia psilostachya). This plant community had similar plant composition to the 2.2 Blue Grama-Threadleaf Sedge-Kentucky Bluegrass Plant Community Phase. The main difference is that this plant community phase did not have the presence of nonnative invasive species such as Kentucky bluegrass and smooth bromegrass. When compared to the 1.1 Needleandthread-Little Bluestem-Prairie Dropseed Plant Community Phase, sedge, and blue grama increased. Big bluestem and needlegrasses decreased and production of mid- and tall warm-season grasses was also reduced. This plant community was moderately resistant to change. The herbaceous species present were well adapted to grazing; however, species composition could be altered through long-term overgrazing. If the herbaceous component was intact, it tended to be resilient if the disturbance was not long-term.

Figure 10. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). SD0203, Rolling Till Prairie, cool-season/warm-season codominant.. Cool-season, warm-season codominant..

Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun	Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec
J	F	M	A	M	J	J	A	S	O	N	D
0	0	3	10	20	28	21	10	5	3	0	0

Pathway 1.1A
Community 1.1 to 1.2

Heavy continuous grazing which includes herbivory at moderate to heavy levels at the same time of year each year without adequate recovery periods, or during periods of below normal precipitation when grazing frequency and intensity increases on these sites due to limited forage availability on adjacent upland sites will shift this community to the 1.2 Blue Grama-Threadleaf Sedge-Needleandthread Plant Community Phase.

Pathway 1.2A
Community 1.2 to 1.1

Prescribed grazing, and/or prescribed burning returned to normal disturbance regime levels and frequencies or periodic light to moderate grazing possibly including periodic rest will convert this plant community to the 1.1 Needlandthread-Little Bluestem-Prairie Dropseed Plant Community Phase.

State 2
Native/Invaded State

This state is very similar to the Reference State. The invasion of introduced cool-season sod grasses has altered the natural range of variability for this ecological site (ES). This state still has strong components of both warm- and cool-season grass species, but invasive introduced cool-season sod grasses are now present in all community phases of this state. The primary disturbance mechanisms for this state include grazing by domestic livestock and a lack of fire. Timing of fires and grazing coupled with weather events dictate the dynamics that occur within this state. The mid- and tall warm- and cool-season native grasses can decline and an increase in introduced sod grasses will occur. Many times, this state appears as a mosaic of community phases caused primarily by continuous season-long grazing.

Community 2.1
Needleandthread-Little Bluestem-Prairie Dropseed

This community phase most closely resembles the Reference State in appearance and ecological functions (e.g., hydrologic, biotic, and soil/site stability). The warm- and cool-season codominated community is maintained with grazing systems that allow for adequate recovery periods following grazing events and potentially the combination of grazing and prescribed burning which closely mimics the natural disturbance regime. This community phase closely resembles the 1.1 Needleandthread-Little Bluestem-Prairie Dropseed Plant Community Phase. The basic difference is the presence of minor amounts of introduced cool-season grasses and forbs. This is likely a naturally nitrogen deficient plant community. A change in the nutrient cycle on this ES possibly due to the introduction of nonnative species may be a causative factor leading to the eventual dominance of cool-season introduced grasses in the Invaded State.

Figure 11. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). SD0204, Rolling Till Prairie, warm-season dominant, cool-season subdominant.. Warm-season dominant, cool-season subdominant..

Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun	Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec
J	F	M	A	M	J	J	A	S	O	N	D
0	0	3	7	17	25	25	15	7	1	0	0

Community 2.2
Blue Grama-Threadleaf Sedge-Kentucky Bluegrass

Grazing pressure reduces the mid/tall, less grazing tolerant species, while the shorter more grazing tolerant species increase. Litter amounts are reduced and energy capture shifts to slightly earlier in the growing season due to a decline in the later maturing native grass component and an increase in the earlier maturing grass-likes and nonnative grasses. Kentucky bluegrass increases and may approach dominance in this community. Vegetation consists of about 75 percent grass and grass-like species, 15 percent forbs, and 10 percent shrubs. Blue grama, sedge, Kentucky bluegrass, and fringed sagewort (Artemisia frigida) are the dominant species in the early stages of this community phase. Significant grass species include Kentucky bluegrass, needleandthread, threeawn, and sand dropseed. Other grasses present include western wheatgrass, porcupine grass, and prairie Junegrass. The common forbs include cudweed sagewort, goldenrod (Oligoneuron), green sagewort (Artemisia campestris), heath aster (Symphyotrichum ericoides), and scurfpea. Fringed sagewort (Artemisia frigida), cactus (Cactaceae), and rose (Rosa) are the principal shrubs. This community phase is often dispersed throughout the pasture, in an overgrazed/undergrazed pattern, typically referred to as patch grazing. Some areas (overgrazed) will exhibit the impacts of heavy use, while other areas (undergrazed) will have a build-up of litter and a high amount of plant decadence. This is a typical pattern found in properly stocked pastures grazed season-long. In the undergrazed patches, litter buildup reduces plant vigor and density and native seedling recruitment declines. Due to a lack of tiller stimulation and sunlight, native bunchgrasses typically develop dead centers and native rhizomatous grasses are limited to small colonies. In the overgrazed patches, plant vigor is reduced and the competitive advantage goes towards the grazing tolerant short-statured species such as Kentucky bluegrass and sedge. This community phase is approaching the threshold which would readily lead to the Invaded State. If management is significantly altered, this community phase can still be reverted back to the 2.1 Needleandthread-Little Bluestem-Prairie Dropseed community phase. Grazing management that allows for adequate recovery periods will tend to restore the ecological functions of this site. Fire can play a role in reducing the introduced cool-season species. The combination of grazing and fire may be the most effective in moving this community phase towards a community resembling the interpretive plant community. Soil erosion is low. Infiltration is reduced, while runoff is increased compared to the interpretive plant community.

Figure 12. Annual production by plant type (representative values) or group (midpoint values)

Table 6. Annual production by plant type

Plant type	Low (lb/acre)	Representative value (lb/acre)	High (lb/acre)
Grass/Grasslike	965	1503	1990
Forb	85	180	310
Shrub/Vine	50	117	200
Total	1100	1800	2500

Figure 13. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). SD0203, Rolling Till Prairie, cool-season/warm-season codominant.. Cool-season, warm-season codominant..

Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun	Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec
J	F	M	A	M	J	J	A	S	O	N	D
0	0	3	10	20	28	21	10	5	3	0	0

Pathway 2.1A
Community 2.1 to 2.2

Heavy continuous grazing which includes herbivory at moderate to heavy levels at the same time of year each year without adequate recovery periods, or during periods of below normal precipitation when grazing frequency and intensity increases on these sites due to limited forage availability on adjacent upland sites will shift this community to the 2.2 Blue Grama-Threadleaf Sedge-Kentucky Bluegrass Plant Community Phase.

Pathway 2.2A
Community 2.2 to 2.1

Prescribed grazing (alternating season of use and providing adequate recovery periods) or periodic light to moderate grazing possibly including periodic rest will convert this plant community to the 2.1 Needleandthread-Little Bluestem-Prairie Dropseed Plant Community Phase.

Conservation practices

Prescribed Grazing

State 3
Invaded State

This state is the result of invasion and dominance of introduced cool-season sod grasses. This state is characterized by the dominance of Kentucky bluegrass and/or smooth bromegrass and an increasing thatch layer that effectively blocks introduction of other plants into the system. Once the state is well established, even drastic events such as high intensity fires driven by high fuel loads of litter and thatch will not result in more than a very short-term reduction of these two species. These events may reduce the dominance of the sod grasses, but due to the large amount of rhizomes in the soil, there is no opportunity for the native species to establish and dominate before the sod grasses rebound and again dominate the system. Plant litter accumulation tends to favor the more shade tolerant introduced grass species. The nutrient cycle is also impaired and the result is typically a higher level of nitrogen which also favors the introduced species. Increasing plant litter decreases the amount of sunlight reaching plant crowns thereby shifting competitive advantage to shade tolerant introduced grass species. Studies indicate that soil biological activity is altered and this shift apparently exploits the soil microclimate and encourages growth of the introduced grass species. Once the threshold is crossed, a change in grazing management alone cannot cause a reduction in sodgrass dominance. Preliminary studies would tend to indicate this threshold may exist when Kentucky bluegrass exceeds 30 percent of the plant community and native grasses represent less than 40 percent of the plant community composition.

Community 3.1
Kentucky Bluegrass-Smooth Bromegrass

This plant community phase is a result of extended periods of non-use and no fire. It is characterized by a dominance of smooth bromegrass and Kentucky bluegrass. The dominance is at times so complete that other species are difficult to find on the site. A thick duff layer also accumulates at or above the soil surface and eventually a thatch-mat layer may develop at the surface. Nutrient cycling is greatly reduced and native plants have great difficulty becoming established. When dominated by smooth bromegrass, infiltration is moderately reduced and runoff is moderate. Production can be equal to or higher than the interpretive plant community. However, when dominated by Kentucky bluegrass, infiltration is greatly reduced and runoff is high. Production in this case will likely be significantly less. In either case, the period that palatability is high is relatively short, as these cool-season species mature rapidly. Energy capture is also reduced.

Figure 14. Annual production by plant type (representative values) or group (midpoint values)

Table 7. Annual production by plant type

Plant type	Low (lb/acre)	Representative value (lb/acre)	High (lb/acre)
Grass/Grasslike	1200	1815	2365
Shrub/Vine	100	220	385
Forb	100	165	250
Total	1400	2200	3000

Figure 15. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). SD0201, Rolling Till Prairie, cool-season dominant.. Cool-season dominant..

Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun	Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec
J	F	M	A	M	J	J	A	S	O	N	D
0	0	4	12	25	36	10	5	4	4	0	0

Community 3.2
Kentucky Bluegrass Sod-Forbs

This plant community phase is a result of heavy, continuous seasonal grazing or heavy, continuous season-long grazing. It is characterized by a dominance of Kentucky bluegrass, sedge, and blue grama. The dominance is at times so complete that other species are difficult to find on the site. A relatively thick duff layer can sometimes accumulate at or above the soil surface and a thatch-mat layer often develops at the surface. Nutrient cycling is greatly reduced and native plants have great difficulty becoming established. Infiltration is greatly reduced and runoff is high. Production will be significantly reduced when compared to the interpretive plant community. The period that palatability is high is relatively short as Kentucky bluegrass matures rapidly. Energy capture is also reduced. Biological activity in the soil is likely reduced significantly in this phase.

Figure 16. Annual production by plant type (representative values) or group (midpoint values)

Table 8. Annual production by plant type

Plant type	Low (lb/acre)	Representative value (lb/acre)	High (lb/acre)
Grass/Grasslike	710	1085	1525
Forb	125	210	320
Shrub/Vine	65	105	155
Total	900	1400	2000

Figure 17. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). SD0201, Rolling Till Prairie, cool-season dominant.. Cool-season dominant..

Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun	Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec
J	F	M	A	M	J	J	A	S	O	N	D
0	0	4	12	25	36	10	5	4	4	0	0

Community 3.3
Annual Pioneer-Perennial Pioneer

This plant community developed under continuous heavy grazing or other excessive disturbances (e.g., heavy use areas, defoliation by rodents, etc.). The potential plant community is made up of approximately 40 to 80 percent grasses and grass-like species, 20 to 60 percent forbs, and 0 to 5 percent shrubs. The species present in this phase are highly variable, but often include nonnative invasive and/or early seral species. Plant diversity is low (plant richness may be high but areas are often dominated by a few species). The ecological processes are difficult to restore because of the loss of plant diversity and overall soil disturbance. Soil erosion is potentially very high because of the bare ground and shallow rooted herbaceous plant community. Water runoff will increase and infiltration will decrease due to animal related soil compaction and loss of root mass due to low plant diversity and vigor. This plant community will require significant economic inputs and time to move towards another plant community. This movement is highly variable in its succession. This is due to the loss of diversity (including the loss of the seed bank), within the existing plant community, and the plant communities on adjacent sites. This community can be renovated to improve the production capability; however, if management changes are not made the vegetation could revert back invasive or early seral species.

Pathway 3.1A
Community 3.1 to 3.2

Heavy continuous grazing which includes herbivory at moderate to heavy levels at the same time of year each year without adequate recovery periods, or during periods of below normal precipitation when grazing frequency and intensity increases on these sites due to limited forage availability on adjacent upland sites will shift this community to the 3.2 Kentucky Bluegrass Sod-Forbs Plant Community Phase.

Pathway 3.3A
Community 3.3 to 3.2

This community pathway occurs with the passage of time as successional processes take place and perennial plants gradually begin to establish on the site again. This pathway will lead to the 3.2 Kentucky Bluegrass Sod-Forbs Plant Community Phase.

State 4
Crop Production State

This state is characterized by the production of annual crops using a variety of tillage and cropping systems along with management practices.

Community 4.1
Annual Crops

This plant community developed with the use of a variety of tillage systems and cropping systems for the production of annual crops including corn, soybeans, wheat, sugar beet and a variety of other crops.

Transition T1A
State 1 to 2

Non-use and/or no surface fire for extended periods of time (typically for 10 or more years) causing litter levels to become high enough to reduce native grass vigor, diversity, and density, and/or heavy continuous grazing or invasion of non-native plant species will likely lead this state over a threshold resulting in the Native/Invaded State (State 2).

Transition T1B
State 1 to 4

Tillage will cause a shift over a threshold leading to the 4.1 Annual Crops within the Crop Production State (State 4).

Transition T2A
State 2 to 3

Non-use and/or no surface fire for extended periods of time (typically for 10 or more years) causing litter levels to become high enough to reduce native grass vigor, diversity, and density, will likely lead this state over a threshold leading to the 3.1 Kentucky Bluegrass-Smooth Bromegrass Community Phase within the Invaded State (State 3). Heavy continuous grazing (stocking levels well above carrying capacity for extended portions of the growing season and often at the same time of year each year), will likely lead this state over a threshold leading to the 3.2 Kentucky Bluegrass Sod-Forbs Community Phase within the Invaded State (State 3). Grazing repeatedly in the early growing season can expedite this shift by causing mechanical disturbance due to trampling.

Transition T2C
State 2 to 4

Tillage will cause a shift over a threshold leading to the 4.1 Annual Crops within the Crop Production State (State 4).

Restoration pathway R3A
State 3 to 2

Long-term prescribed grazing (moderate stocking levels coupled with adequate recovery periods, or other grazing systems such as high-density, low-frequency intended to treat specific species dominance, or periodic light to moderate stocking levels possibly including periodic rest) coupled with prescribed burning may lead the 3.1 Kentucky Bluegrass-Smooth Bromegrass Community Phase within the Invaded State (State 3) over a threshold to the Native/Invaded State (State 2). Seeding followed by Long-term prescribed grazing (moderate stocking levels coupled with adequate recovery periods, or other grazing systems such as high-density, low-frequency intended to treat specific species dominance, or periodic light to moderate stocking levels possibly including periodic rest) may lead this Invaded State (State 3) over a threshold to the Native/Invaded State (State 2).

Conservation practices

Integrated Pest Management (IPM)
Prescribed Grazing

Transition T3
State 3 to 4

Tillage will cause a shift over a threshold leading to the 4.1 Annual Crops within the Crop Production State (State 4).

Restoration pathway R4A
State 4 to 2

Seeding may lead this Crop Production State (State 4) over a threshold to the Native/Invaded State (State 2).

Restoration pathway R4B
State 4 to 3

Seeding may lead this Crop Production State (State 4) over a threshold to the Invaded State (State 3). Cropping followed by abandonment may lead this plant community phase over a threshold to the Invaded State (State 3) and more specifically to the 3.3 Annual Pioneer-Perennial Pioneer Plant Community Phase.

Additional community tables

Table 9. Community 1.1 plant community composition

Group	Common name	Symbol	Scientific name	Annual production (lb/acre)	Foliar cover (%)
Grass/Grasslike
1	Cool-season Bunchgrasses			240–720
	needle and thread	HECOC8	Hesperostipa comata ssp. comata	120–720	–
	porcupinegrass	HESP11	Hesperostipa spartea	120–720	–
	green needlegrass	NAVI4	Nassella viridula	0–72	–
	Canada wildrye	ELCA4	Elymus canadensis	0–72	–
2	Mid Warm-season Grasses			240–720
	little bluestem	SCSC	Schizachyrium scoparium	120–480	–
	prairie dropseed	SPHE	Sporobolus heterolepis	48–360	–
	sideoats grama	BOCU	Bouteloua curtipendula	24–120	–
	plains muhly	MUCU3	Muhlenbergia cuspidata	24–120	–
3	Tall Warm-season Grasses			48–360
	big bluestem	ANGE	Andropogon gerardii	48–360	–
	prairie sandreed	CALO	Calamovilfa longifolia	0–120	–
	switchgrass	PAVI2	Panicum virgatum	0–120	–
4	Short Warm-season Grasses			48–240
	blue grama	BOGR2	Bouteloua gracilis	24–240	–
	hairy grama	BOHI2	Bouteloua hirsuta	24–240	–
	sand dropseed	SPCR	Sporobolus cryptandrus	0–72	–
	threeawn	ARIST	Aristida	0–48	–
5	Grass-likes			48–240
	threadleaf sedge	CAFI	Carex filifolia	48–168	–
	Grass-like (not a true grass)	2GL	Grass-like (not a true grass)	0–120	–
6	Wheatgrass			0–120
	slender wheatgrass	ELTR7	Elymus trachycaulus	0–120	–
	western wheatgrass	PASM	Pascopyrum smithii	0–120	–
7	Other Native Grasses			48–120
	Graminoid (grass or grass-like)	2GRAM	Graminoid (grass or grass-like)	0–72	–
	prairie Junegrass	KOMA	Koeleria macrantha	24–72	–
	fall rosette grass	DIWI5	Dichanthelium wilcoxianum	24–48	–
8	Forbs			120–360
	Forb, native	2FN	Forb, native	24–120	–
	blacksamson echinacea	ECAN2	Echinacea angustifolia	24–72	–
	blazing star	LIATR	Liatris	24–72	–
	false boneset	BREU	Brickellia eupatorioides	0–48	–
	purple prairie clover	DAPU5	Dalea purpurea	24–48	–
	northern bedstraw	GABO2	Galium boreale	0–48	–
	scarlet beeblossom	GACO5	Gaura coccinea	24–48	–
	stiff sunflower	HEPA19	Helianthus pauciflorus	24–48	–
	anemone	ANEMO	Anemone	0–48	–
	field sagewort	ARCA12	Artemisia campestris	24–48	–
	white sagebrush	ARLU	Artemisia ludoviciana	24–48	–
	wild bergamot	MOFI	Monarda fistulosa	0–48	–
	scurfpea	PSORA2	Psoralidium	24–48	–
	cutleaf anemone	PUPAM	Pulsatilla patens ssp. multifida	0–48	–
	upright prairie coneflower	RACO3	Ratibida columnifera	24–48	–
	goldenrod	SOLID	Solidago	24–48	–
	white heath aster	SYER	Symphyotrichum ericoides	24–48	–
	aromatic aster	SYOB	Symphyotrichum oblongifolium	0–48	–
	hoary verbena	VEST	Verbena stricta	0–48	–
	American vetch	VIAM	Vicia americana	24–48	–
	purple locoweed	OXLA3	Oxytropis lambertii	0–24	–
	milkvetch	ASTRA	Astragalus	0–24	–
	pussytoes	ANTEN	Antennaria	0–24	–
	western yarrow	ACMIO	Achillea millefolium var. occidentalis	0–24	–
	Cuman ragweed	AMPS	Ambrosia psilostachya	0–24	–
	lacy tansyaster	MAPI	Machaeranthera pinnatifida	0–24	–
9	Shrubs			48–240
	leadplant	AMCA6	Amorpha canescens	24–120	–
	snowberry	SYMPH	Symphoricarpos	0–72	–
	Shrub (>.5m)	2SHRUB	Shrub (>.5m)	0–72	–
	prairie sagewort	ARFR4	Artemisia frigida	0–48	–
	pricklypear	OPUNT	Opuntia	0–48	–
	rose	ROSA5	Rosa	24–48	–

Table 10. Community 2.2 plant community composition

Group	Common name	Symbol	Scientific name	Annual production (lb/acre)	Foliar cover (%)
Grass/Grasslike
1	Cool-season Bunchgrasses			36–270
	needle and thread	HECOC8	Hesperostipa comata ssp. comata	36–270	–
	porcupinegrass	HESP11	Hesperostipa spartea	0–90	–
2	Mid Warm-season Grasses			36–270
	little bluestem	SCSC	Schizachyrium scoparium	18–180	–
	prairie dropseed	SPHE	Sporobolus heterolepis	0–90	–
	sideoats grama	BOCU	Bouteloua curtipendula	0–90	–
	plains muhly	MUCU3	Muhlenbergia cuspidata	0–54	–
3	Tall Warm-season Grasses			0–54
	big bluestem	ANGE	Andropogon gerardii	0–36	–
	prairie sandreed	CALO	Calamovilfa longifolia	0–36	–
	switchgrass	PAVI2	Panicum virgatum	0–18	–
4	Short Warm-season Grasses			180–450
	blue grama	BOGR2	Bouteloua gracilis	90–450	–
	hairy grama	BOHI2	Bouteloua hirsuta	18–450	–
	sand dropseed	SPCR	Sporobolus cryptandrus	0–90	–
	threeawn	ARIST	Aristida	0–72	–
5	Grass-likes			90–360
	threadleaf sedge	CAFI	Carex filifolia	90–324	–
	Grass-like (not a true grass)	2GL	Grass-like (not a true grass)	0–126	–
6	Wheatgrass			0–36
	western wheatgrass	PASM	Pascopyrum smithii	0–36	–
7	Other Native Grasses			36–90
	Graminoid (grass or grass-like)	2GRAM	Graminoid (grass or grass-like)	0–54	–
	fall rosette grass	DIWI5	Dichanthelium wilcoxianum	18–36	–
	prairie Junegrass	KOMA	Koeleria macrantha	18–36	–
8	Non-Native Grasses			90–360
	Kentucky bluegrass	POPR	Poa pratensis	90–360	–
	smooth brome	BRIN2	Bromus inermis	0–90	–
10	Shrubs			54–180
	prairie sagewort	ARFR4	Artemisia frigida	18–72	–
	pricklypear	OPUNT	Opuntia	18–54	–
	snowberry	SYMPH	Symphoricarpos	0–54	–
	rose	ROSA5	Rosa	18–36	–
	Shrub (>.5m)	2SHRUB	Shrub (>.5m)	0–36	–
	leadplant	AMCA6	Amorpha canescens	0–36	–
Forb
9	Forbs			90–270
	Forb, native	2FN	Forb, native	0–72	–
	field sagewort	ARCA12	Artemisia campestris	18–72	–
	white sagebrush	ARLU	Artemisia ludoviciana	18–72	–
	blazing star	LIATR	Liatris	18–54	–
	scurfpea	PSORA2	Psoralidium	18–54	–
	goldenrod	SOLID	Solidago	18–54	–
	white heath aster	SYER	Symphyotrichum ericoides	18–54	–
	Forb, introduced	2FI	Forb, introduced	18–54	–
	hoary verbena	VEST	Verbena stricta	0–36	–
	western yarrow	ACMIO	Achillea millefolium var. occidentalis	0–36	–
	Cuman ragweed	AMPS	Ambrosia psilostachya	0–36	–
	pussytoes	ANTEN	Antennaria	0–18	–
	purple prairie clover	DAPU5	Dalea purpurea	0–18	–
	blacksamson echinacea	ECAN2	Echinacea angustifolia	0–18	–
	scarlet beeblossom	GACO5	Gaura coccinea	0–18	–
	stiff sunflower	HEPA19	Helianthus pauciflorus	0–18	–
	American vetch	VIAM	Vicia americana	0–18	–
	aromatic aster	SYOB	Symphyotrichum oblongifolium	0–18	–
	upright prairie coneflower	RACO3	Ratibida columnifera	0–18	–
	wild bergamot	MOFI	Monarda fistulosa	0–18	–
	purple locoweed	OXLA3	Oxytropis lambertii	0–18	–

Table 11. Community 3.1 plant community composition

Group	Common name	Symbol	Scientific name	Annual production (lb/acre)	Foliar cover (%)
Grass/Grasslike
1	Cool-season Bunchgrasses			0–110
	needle and thread	HECOC8	Hesperostipa comata ssp. comata	0–110	–
2	Mid Warm-season Grasses			0–66
	sideoats grama	BOCU	Bouteloua curtipendula	0–66	–
	little bluestem	SCSC	Schizachyrium scoparium	0–44	–
3	Short Warm-season Grasses			22–220
	blue grama	BOGR2	Bouteloua gracilis	22–154	–
	hairy grama	BOHI2	Bouteloua hirsuta	0–88	–
	sand dropseed	SPCR	Sporobolus cryptandrus	0–88	–
	threeawn	ARIST	Aristida	0–22	–
4	Grass-likes			44–220
	threadleaf sedge	CAFI	Carex filifolia	44–220	–
	Grass-like (not a true grass)	2GL	Grass-like (not a true grass)	0–110	–
5	Wheatgrass			0–44
	western wheatgrass	PASM	Pascopyrum smithii	0–44	–
6	Other Native Grasses			22–110
	Graminoid (grass or grass-like)	2GRAM	Graminoid (grass or grass-like)	0–66	–
	fall rosette grass	DIWI5	Dichanthelium wilcoxianum	22–44	–
	prairie Junegrass	KOMA	Koeleria macrantha	0–22	–
7	Non-Native Grasses			660–1540
	smooth brome	BRIN2	Bromus inermis	330–1210	–
	Kentucky bluegrass	POPR	Poa pratensis	330–1210	–
Forb
8	Forbs			110–220
	Forb, introduced	2FI	Forb, introduced	22–66	–
	white sagebrush	ARLU	Artemisia ludoviciana	22–66	–
	Forb, native	2FN	Forb, native	0–44	–
	Cuman ragweed	AMPS	Ambrosia psilostachya	22–44	–
	field sagewort	ARCA12	Artemisia campestris	22–44	–
	blazing star	LIATR	Liatris	22–44	–
	wild bergamot	MOFI	Monarda fistulosa	22–44	–
	scurfpea	PSORA2	Psoralidium	22–44	–
	goldenrod	SOLID	Solidago	22–44	–
	white heath aster	SYER	Symphyotrichum ericoides	22–44	–
	aromatic aster	SYOB	Symphyotrichum oblongifolium	0–22	–
	hoary verbena	VEST	Verbena stricta	0–22	–
	American vetch	VIAM	Vicia americana	0–22	–
	upright prairie coneflower	RACO3	Ratibida columnifera	0–22	–
	purple locoweed	OXLA3	Oxytropis lambertii	0–22	–
	western yarrow	ACMIO	Achillea millefolium var. occidentalis	0–22	–
	purple prairie clover	DAPU5	Dalea purpurea	0–22	–
	blacksamson echinacea	ECAN2	Echinacea angustifolia	0–22	–
	scarlet beeblossom	GACO5	Gaura coccinea	0–22	–
Shrub/Vine
9	Shrubs			110–330
	snowberry	SYMPH	Symphoricarpos	22–220	–
	rose	ROSA5	Rosa	22–88	–
	Shrub (>.5m)	2SHRUB	Shrub (>.5m)	0–66	–
	leadplant	AMCA6	Amorpha canescens	0–66	–
	prairie sagewort	ARFR4	Artemisia frigida	22–66	–
	pricklypear	OPUNT	Opuntia	0–44	–

Table 12. Community 3.2 plant community composition

Group	Common name	Symbol	Scientific name	Annual production (lb/acre)	Foliar cover (%)
Grass/Grasslike
1	Mid Warm-season Grasses			0–70
	sideoats grama	BOCU	Bouteloua curtipendula	0–70	–
2	Short Warm-season Grasses			14–210
	blue grama	BOGR2	Bouteloua gracilis	0–210	–
	hairy grama	BOHI2	Bouteloua hirsuta	0–112	–
	sand dropseed	SPCR	Sporobolus cryptandrus	0–84	–
	threeawn	ARIST	Aristida	14–70	–
3	Grass-likes			70–182
	threadleaf sedge	CAFI	Carex filifolia	70–182	–
	Grass-like (not a true grass)	2GL	Grass-like (not a true grass)	0–70	–
4	Other Native Grasses			0–28
	Graminoid (grass or grass-like)	2GRAM	Graminoid (grass or grass-like)	0–28	–
	fall rosette grass	DIWI5	Dichanthelium wilcoxianum	0–14	–
	prairie Junegrass	KOMA	Koeleria macrantha	0–14	–
5	Non-Native Grasses			420–980
	Kentucky bluegrass	POPR	Poa pratensis	420–980	–
	smooth brome	BRIN2	Bromus inermis	0–140	–
Forb
6	Forbs			140–280
	Forb, introduced	2FI	Forb, introduced	14–98	–
	field sagewort	ARCA12	Artemisia campestris	14–70	–
	white sagebrush	ARLU	Artemisia ludoviciana	14–70	–
	goldenrod	SOLID	Solidago	14–70	–
	white heath aster	SYER	Symphyotrichum ericoides	14–70	–
	scurfpea	PSORA2	Psoralidium	0–42	–
	western yarrow	ACMIO	Achillea millefolium var. occidentalis	14–42	–
	Cuman ragweed	AMPS	Ambrosia psilostachya	14–42	–
	blazing star	LIATR	Liatris	0–28	–
	hoary verbena	VEST	Verbena stricta	0–28	–
	upright prairie coneflower	RACO3	Ratibida columnifera	0–14	–
	pussytoes	ANTEN	Antennaria	0–14	–
	Forb, native	2FN	Forb, native	0–14	–
Shrub/Vine
7	Shrubs			70–140
	prairie sagewort	ARFR4	Artemisia frigida	14–84	–
	pricklypear	OPUNT	Opuntia	14–70	–
	snowberry	SYMPH	Symphoricarpos	0–42	–
	rose	ROSA5	Rosa	14–28	–

Interpretations

Animal community

Animal Community – Grazing Interpretations
The following table lists annual, suggested initial stocking rates with average growing conditions. These are conservative estimates that should be used only as guidelines in the initial stages of conservation planning. Often, the current plant composition does not entirely match any particular plant community (as described in this ES description). Because of this, a resource inventory is necessary to document plant composition and production. More accurate carrying capacity estimates should eventually be calculated using the following stocking rate information along with animal preference data and actual stocking records, particularly when grazers other than cattle are involved. With consultation of the land manager, more intensive grazing management may result in improved harvest efficiencies and increased carrying capacity.

Needlegrass/Bluestem/Prairie Dropseed (1.1 & 2.1)
Average Annual Production (lbs./acre, air-dry): 2400
Stocking Rate* (AUM/acre): 0.66

Grama/Sedge/Kentucky Bluegrass (2.2)
Average Annual Production (lbs./acre, air-dry): 1800
Stocking Rate* (AUM/acre): 0.49

Kentucky Bluegrass/Smooth Bromegrass (3.1)
Average Annual Production (lbs./acre, air-dry): 2200
Stocking Rate* (AUM/acre): 0.60

Kentucky Bluegrass Sod/Forbs (3.2)
Average Annual Production (lbs./acre, air-dry): 1400
Stocking Rate* (AUM/acre): 0.38

Annual/Pioneer, Non-Native Perennial (3.3)
Average Annual Production (lbs./acre, air-dry): 900
Stocking Rate* (AUM/acre): 0.25

*Based on 912 lbs./acre (air-dry weight) per Animal Unit Month (AUM), and on 25 percent harvest efficiency (refer to United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS), National Range and Pasture Handbook).

Grazing by domestic livestock is one of the major income-producing industries in the area. Rangeland in this area may provide yearlong forage. During the dormant period, the forage for livestock will likely be lacking protein to meet livestock requirements, and added protein will allow ruminants to better utilize the energy stored in grazed plant materials. A forage quality test (either directly or through fecal sampling) should be used to determine the level of supplementation needed.

Hydrological functions

Water is the principal factor limiting forage production on this site. This site is dominated by soils in hydrologic group B. Infiltration is typically moderate and runoff potential for this site varies from negligible to medium depending on soil hydrologic group, slope, and ground cover. In many cases, areas with greater than 75 percent ground cover have the greatest potential for high infiltration and lower runoff. An example of an exception would be where shortgrasses form a strong sod and dominate the site. Dominance by blue grama, bluegrass, and/or smooth bromegrass will result in reduced infiltration and increased runoff. Areas where ground cover is less than 50 percent have the greatest potential to have reduced infiltration and higher runoff (refer to Section 4, NRCS National Engineering Handbook for runoff quantities and hydrologic curves).

Recreational uses

This site provides hunting, hiking, photography, bird watching, and other opportunities. The wide varieties of plants that bloom from spring until fall have an esthetic value that appeals to visitors.

Wood products

No appreciable wood products are typically present on this site.

Other products

Seed harvest of native plant species can provide additional income on this site.

Supporting information

Inventory data references

Information presented here has been derived from NRCS clipping data and other inventory data. Field observations from range-trained personnel were also used. Those involved in developing this site include: Stan Boltz, Range Management Specialist, NRCS; and Bruce Kunze, Soil Scientist, NRCS.

Data Source Sample Period State County
SCS-RANGE-417 (1008646037) 1986 SD Day
SCS-RANGE-417 (1008746037) 1987 SD Day

Other references

Cleland, D.T., J.A. Freeouf, J.E. Keys, G.J. Nowacki, C. Carpenter, and W.H. McNab. 2007. Ecological Subregions: Sections and Subsections of the Coterminous United States. USDA Forest Service, General Technical Report WO-76. Washington, DC. 92 pps.

Gilbert, M. C., Whited, P. M., Clairain Jr, E. J., & Smith, R. D. (2006). A Regional Guidebook for Applying the Hydrogeomorphic Approach to Assessing Wetland Functions of Prairie Potholes. Washington DC.

Samson, F. B., & Knopf, F. L. (1996). Prairie Conservation Preserving North America's Most Endagered Ecosystem. Washington D.C.: Island Press.

Soil Survey Staff, Natural Resources Conservation Service, United States Department of Agriculture. Official Soil Series Descriptions. Available online. Accessed March 2018.

United States Department of Agriculture – Natural Resource Conservation Service (USDA-NRCS). 2003. National Range and Pasture Handbook, Revision 1. Grazing Lands Technology Institute. 214 pps.

United States Department of Agriculture – Natural Resource Conservation Service (USDA-NRCS). 2006. Land Resource Regions and Major Land Resource Areas of the United States, the Caribbean, and the Pacific Basin. U.S. Department of Agriculture Handbook 296. 672pps.

USDA, NRCS. National Soil Information System, Information Technology Center, 2150 Centre Avenue, Building A, Fort Collins, CO 80526. (http://soils.usda.gov/technical/nasis/)

USDA, NRCS. 2018. The PLANTS Database (http://plants.usda.gov, 27 March 2018). National Plant Data Team, Greensboro, NC 27401-4901 USA.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency [EPA]. 2013. Level III and Level IV Ecoregions of the Continental United States. Corvallis, OR, U.S. EPA, National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory, map scale 1:3,000,000. Available at http://www.epa.gov/eco-research/level-iii-and-iv-ecoregions- continental-united-states. (Accessed 1 March 2018).

Contributors

Megan Baxter
Stan Boltz
Lance Howe
Steve Winter

Approval

Suzanne Mayne-Kinney, 6/27/2024

Acknowledgments

Contact for Lead Authors: Natural Resources Conservation Service (USDA-NRCS), Redfield Soil Survey Office Redfield, SD; Lance Howe (Lance.Howe@usda.gov), Soil Survey Office Leader, USDA-NRCS, Redfield, SD; and Steve Winter (Steven.Winter@usda.gov), Soil Scientist, USDA-NRCS, Redfield, SD

Additional Information Acknowledgment: Jason Hermann (Jason.Hermann@usda.gov), Area Rangeland Management Specialist, USDA-NRCS, Redfield, SD.

Rangeland health reference sheet

Interpreting Indicators of Rangeland Health is a qualitative assessment protocol used to determine ecosystem condition based on benchmark characteristics described in the Reference Sheet. A suite of 17 (or more) indicators are typically considered in an assessment. The ecological site(s) representative of an assessment location must be known prior to applying the protocol and must be verified based on soils and climate. Current plant community cannot be used to identify the ecological site.

Author(s)/participant(s)	David Schmidt, Tim Nordquist, Stan Boltz
Contact for lead author
Date	12/04/2007
Approved by	Suzanne Mayne-Kinney
Approval date
Composition (Indicators 10 and 12) based on	Annual Production

Indicators

Number and extent of rills:
Rills should not be present.
Presence of water flow patterns:
Typically not observable.
Number and height of erosional pedestals or terracettes:
None.
Bare ground from Ecological Site Description or other studies (rock, litter, lichen, moss, plant canopy are not bare ground):
Bare ground 5-15%.
Number of gullies and erosion associated with gullies:
Active gullies should not be present.
Extent of wind scoured, blowouts and/or depositional areas:
None.
Amount of litter movement (describe size and distance expected to travel):
Little to no plant litter movement.
Soil surface (top few mm) resistance to erosion (stability values are averages - most sites will show a range of values):
Stability class usually 5-6. Typically high root content, organic matter, and granular structure. Soil surface is resistant to erosion.
Soil surface structure and SOM content (include type of structure and A-horizon color and thickness):
Use soil series description for depth and color of A-horizon.
Effect of community phase composition (relative proportion of different functional groups) and spatial distribution on infiltration and runoff:
Healthy, deep rooted native grasses enhance infiltration and reduce runoff.
Presence and thickness of compaction layer (usually none; describe soil profile features which may be mistaken for compaction on this site):
No compaction layer should be evident.
Functional/Structural Groups (list in order of descending dominance by above-ground annual-production or live foliar cover using symbols: >>, >, = to indicate much greater than, greater than, and equal to):

Dominant:
Tall cool-season bunch grass >> mid warm-season bunch grass

Sub-dominant:
> tall warm-season bunch grass = short warm-season grass = short cool-season grass = forb = shrub

Other:

Additional:
Amount of plant mortality and decadence (include which functional groups are expected to show mortality or decadence):
Very little to no evidence of decadence or mortality.
Average percent litter cover (%) and depth ( in):
50-60%, less than 0.5 inch thick. Litter cover is in contact with soil surface.
Expected annual annual-production (this is TOTAL above-ground annual-production, not just forage annual-production):
2100 – 2800 lbs./acre air-dry weight, average 2,400 lbs./acre air-dry weight
Potential invasive (including noxious) species (native and non-native). List species which BOTH characterize degraded states and have the potential to become a dominant or co-dominant species on the ecological site if their future establishment and growth is not actively controlled by management interventions. Species that become dominant for only one to several years (e.g., short-term response to drought or wildfire) are not invasive plants. Note that unlike other indicators, we are describing what is NOT expected in the reference state for the ecological site:
Refer to State and Local Noxious Weed List, also Kentucky bluegrass, smooth bromegrass
Perennial plant reproductive capability:
All species are capable of reproducing.

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Ecosystem states

1. Reference State

2. Native/Invaded State

3. Invaded State

4. Crop Production State

T1A	-	Heavy continuous grazing, no use, no fire, invasion
T1B	-	Tillage
T2A	-	No use, no fire, heavy continuous grazing
T2C	-	Tillage
R3A	-	Long term prescribed grazing, prescribed burning, long term prescribed grazing, seeding
T3	-	Tillage
R4A	-	Seeding
R4B	-	Seeding, abandonment of cropping