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Ecological site R106XY068NE

Loamy Floodplain

Last updated: 6/09/2025
Accessed: 12/05/2025

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General information

Approved. An approved ecological site description has undergone quality control and quality assurance review. It contains a working state and transition model, enough information to identify the ecological site, and full documentation for all ecosystem states contained in the state and transition model.

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Figure 1. Mapped extent

Areas shown in blue indicate the maximum mapped extent of this ecological site. Other ecological sites likely occur within the highlighted areas. It is also possible for this ecological site to occur outside of highlighted areas if detailed soil survey has not been completed or recently updated.

MLRA notes

Major Land Resource Area (MLRA): 106X–Nebraska and Kansas Loess-Drift Hills

Named the “Nebraska and Kansas Loess-Drift Hills,” Major Land Resource Area (MLRA) 106 is divided almost evenly between southeastern Nebraska (52%), and northeastern Kansas, (48%). The approximately seven-million-acre landscape covers all or parts of thirty counties between the two states. The northern border is located on the north end of Saunders County, Nebraska, and the MLRA extends into Douglas County, Kansas in the south. The Nebraska cities of Beatrice and Lincoln are the major population centers in the north, while Topeka and Lawrence in Kansas are the primary cities in the south. The Platte, Little Nemaha, and the North Fork of the Big Nemaha Rivers flow through the Nebraska side of the MLRA, while the Black Vermillion, the Soldier, and the Delaware Rivers are the major waterways on the Kansas side. The Big Blue River runs through both states, while the Salt Creek hydrologic system located near Lincoln, Nebraska provides habitat for the only known population of the Federally listed endangered Salt Creek Tiger Beetle.

This dissected glacial drift plain primarily consists of broad, smooth ridgetops, and slopes ranging from nearly level to steep. The elevation in MLRA 106 decreases from west to east, and ranges from nearly 1,650 feet to less than 790 feet above sea level. Stream valleys in this landscape are narrow and bordered by steep hills, with 10 to 20 feet of local relief. The river valleys are broader and may drop up to over 160 feet below the adjacent hilltops. The uplands are primarily comprised of glacial drift underlying a mantle of loess, while alluvial deposits are found in the stream and river valleys. Limestone and shale quarries are also located in MLRA 106. The predominant soil orders in this MLRA are mesic, udic, Mollisols, Alfisols, and Entisols. Loams and clays are the primary soil textures in this landscape.

Sixty-two percent of the land in this MLRA has been broken out of native prairie and farmed, while only 23 percent of the grasslands remain. Livestock grazing, primarily by cattle, is the main industry on these remnants. Corn, wheat, soybeans, and grain sorghum are the primary commodity crops, but a significant number of acres are also planted to alfalfa for harvest as hay. With annual precipitation averaging from 40 inches in the southeast, to 28 inches in the northwest, irrigation for crop production is not a critical factor in most years.

The historical matrix vegetation type is Tallgrass Prairie, and big and little bluestem, switchgrass, Indiangrass, sideoats, and blue grama make up the bulk of the warm-season species. Historically, western wheatgrass was the dominant cool-season grass but today the dominant cool-season grasses are introduced grasses, smooth brome in the north and tall fescue in the south. Large and small patch vegetative communities are found primarily along the riparian zones, and on both upland and lowland saline sites. Woodlands make up about six percent of MLRA 106, consisting primarily of green ash, oak, hackberry, boxelder, and maple trees.

Wildlife flourishes in this combination of crop and grassland environments. In a landscape historically occupied by bison herds, white-tailed deer are now the most abundant wild ungulates. A variety of smaller species, including coyote, raccoon, opossum, porcupines, muskrat, beaver, squirrel, and mink thrive in the region. Native grassland bird populations are limited by the lack of contiguous native prairie and the fragmented habitat created by the farmland. The rivers, streams, and lakes harbor excellent fisheries, and migrating and local waterfowl use the wetland complexes. These complexes provide ideal habitat for wading and shore bird species as well.

This landscape serves as a backdrop for a disturbance driven ecosystem, evolving under the influences of herbivory, fire, and variable climate. Historically, these processes created a heterogeneous mosaic of plant communities and structure heights across the region. Any given site in this landscape experienced fire every three to four years. Fires were caused by lightning strikes and also were set by Native Americans, who used fire for warfare, signaling, and to refresh the native grasses. The indigenous inhabitants understood the value of fire as a tool and that the highly palatable growth following a fire provided excellent forage for their horses and attracted grazing game animals such as bison and elk.

Land use patterns by post European settlers have fragmented the native grasslands through conversion to cropland, transportation corridors, and other developments. This has significantly altered the natural fire regime allowing encroachment by native and introduced shrubs and trees into the native prairie remnants throughout the MLRA. Aggressive fire suppression policies have exacerbated this process to the point that shrub and tree encroachment is a major ecological threat in the majority of both native and reseeded grasslands. Introduction of eastern red cedar as a windbreak species further facilitates invasion by this species. While eastern red cedar is native to the landscape, the historic population in MLRA 106 was limited to isolated pockets in rugged river drainageways that were protected from fire. Widespread plantings of windbreaks with eastern red cedar as a primary component have provided a seed source for the aggressive woody plant. The ensuing encroachment into the native grasslands degrades the native wildlife habit and causes significant forage loss for domestic livestock. Since it is not a root-sprouter, eastern red cedar is very susceptible to fire when under six feet tall. Management with prescribed fire is exceedingly effective if applied before this stage. Larger eastern red cedars can also be controlled with fire, but successful application requires the use of specifically designed ignition and holding techniques.

Classification relationships

►USDA-NRCS (2022)◄
Land Resource Region – M, Central Feed Grains and Livestock Region
Major Land Resource Area (MLRA) – 106

►Fenneman (1916) Physiographic Regions ◄
Division – Interior Plains
Province – Central Lowland
Section – Dissected Till Plains

►USDA-USFS (2007) Ecoregions◄
Domain – Humid Temperate
Division – Prairie
Province – Prairie Parkland (Temperate)
Section – Central Dissected Till Plains (251C)

►EPA Ecoregions (Omernik 1997)◄
I – Great Plains (9)
II – Temperate Prairies (9.2)
III – Western Corn Belt Plains (9.2.3)
IV – Loess and Glacial Drift Hills (47i)

►Associated Counties◄
Nebraska: Butler, Cass, Gage, Jefferson, Johnson, Lancaster, Nemaha, Otoe, Pawnee, Richardson, Saline, Saunders, Seward

Kansas: Atchison, Brown, Doniphan, Douglas, Franklin, Jackson, Jefferson, Johnson, Leavenworth, Marshall, Nemaha, Osage, Pottawatomie, Shawnee, Wabaunsee, Washington, Wyandotte

Ecological site concept

The Loamy Floodplain ecological site is primarily found in river valleys and located on active floodplains and low terraces. The site receives additional moisture from runoff originating from higher on the landscape and from periodic inundation from overflow. The slope is nearly level and typically ranges from 0 to 2 percent. Soils are very deep (60 inches or more) with surface textures of very fine sandy loam, fine sandy loam, silt loam, or silty clay loams that are 5 to 32 inches thick or thicker. These somewhat poorly to well drained soils are formed in alluvium. The vegetation of the Reference State is dominated by warm-season tall grasses. Big bluestem, Indiangrass, eastern gamagrass, prairie cordgrass, and switchgrass are the primary species. Scattered native, deciduous trees may be present. Occasional to frequent flooding redistributes soil and plant materials through erosion and deposition and can locally impact production and species composition.

Associated sites

R106XY032NE	Subirrigated The Subirrigated ecological site is often located adjacent to the Loamy Floodplain site.
R106XY074NE	Clayey Upland The Clayey Upland ecological site is often located adjacent to and higher on the landscape than the Loamy Floodplain ecological site.
R106XY075NE	Loamy Upland The Loamy Upland ecological site is often located adjacent to and higher on the landscape than the Loamy Floodplain ecological site.

R106XY032NE

Subirrigated

The Subirrigated ecological site is often located adjacent to the Loamy Floodplain site.

R106XY074NE

Clayey Upland

The Clayey Upland ecological site is often located adjacent to and higher on the landscape than the Loamy Floodplain ecological site.

R106XY075NE

Loamy Upland

The Loamy Upland ecological site is often located adjacent to and higher on the landscape than the Loamy Floodplain ecological site.

Similar sites

R106XY070NE	Loamy Terrace The Loamy Terrace ecological site is found on similar soils but is found in a higher landscape position on stream terraces. It is not subject to the periodic flooding that occurs on Loamy Floodplain ecological sites.
R106XY032NE	Subirrigated The Subirrigated ecological site is located on a similar landscape position but has a higher water table than the Loamy Floodplain ecological site.

R106XY070NE

Loamy Terrace

The Loamy Terrace ecological site is found on similar soils but is found in a higher landscape position on stream terraces. It is not subject to the periodic flooding that occurs on Loamy Floodplain ecological sites.

R106XY032NE

Subirrigated

The Subirrigated ecological site is located on a similar landscape position but has a higher water table than the Loamy Floodplain ecological site.

Figure 2. Block diagram of the Loamy Floodplain site in MLRA 106.

Table 1. Dominant plant species

Tree	(1) Quercus (2) Ulmus
Shrub	(1) Rhus glabra (2) Symphoricarpos occidentalis
Herbaceous	(1) Andropogon gerardii (2) Sorghastrum nutans

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Physiographic features

Loamy Floodplain ecological site is found on the flood plains of river valleys and in narrow drainageways of valleys in uplands. It receives runoff from areas higher on the landscape and flooding is typically occasional to frequent. Sedimentation is common.

Table 2. Representative physiographic features

Landforms	(1) River valley > Flood plain (2) Valley > Drainageway
Runoff class	Negligible to medium
Flooding duration	Very brief (4 to 48 hours) to brief (2 to 7 days)
Flooding frequency	Occasional to frequent
Ponding frequency	None
Elevation	1,000 – 1,200 ft
Slope	2%
Water table depth	36 – 72 in
Aspect	Aspect is not a significant factor

Climatic features

Like most Great Plains landscapes, the climate in this MLRA is under the sway of the continental effect. This creates a regime of extremes, with summer highs often in the triple digits and winter lows plunging well below zero. Blizzards can occur anytime between early fall and late spring, dropping the temperature more than 50 degrees in just a few hours. These events can pile up several feet of snow, often driven by winds in excess of 50 miles an hour. The resulting huge snow drifts can cause serious hardship for livestock, wildlife, and humans. Winters can be open, with bare ground for most of the season, or closed, with several feet of snow persisting until March. Most winters have a number of warm days interspersed with dropping temperatures, usually associated with approaching cold fronts. Spring brings violent thunderstorms, hail, and high winds. Tornadoes occur frequently.

About three-fourths of the precipitation falls as high intensity, convective thunderstorms from late in spring through early in autumn. The average annual precipitation gradient trends higher from northwest (28”) to southeast (40”), and the average annual temperature gradient trends higher from north (50°F) to south (55°F). Daily winds range from an average of 14 miles per hour during the spring to 11 miles per hour during the late summer. Occasional strong storms may bring brief periods of high winds with gusts to more than 80 miles per hour.

Native cool-season plants begin growth in early April and continue to about mid-June. Native warm-season plants begin growth in early June and continue to early August. Green-up of cool-season plants may occur in September and October.

Table 3. Representative climatic features

Frost-free period (characteristic range)	136-148 days
Freeze-free period (characteristic range)	160-188 days
Precipitation total (characteristic range)	31-38 in
Frost-free period (actual range)	129-153 days
Freeze-free period (actual range)	154-190 days
Precipitation total (actual range)	29-39 in
Frost-free period (average)	142 days
Freeze-free period (average)	172 days
Precipitation total (average)	34 in

Characteristic range

Actual range

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Figure 3. Monthly precipitation range

Characteristic range

Actual range

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Figure 4. Monthly minimum temperature range

Characteristic range

Actual range

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Figure 5. Monthly maximum temperature range

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Figure 6. Monthly average minimum and maximum temperature

Figure 7. Annual precipitation pattern

Figure 8. Annual average temperature pattern

Climate stations used

(1) CENTRALIA [USC00141408], Centralia, KS
(2) HOLTON [USC00143759], Holton, KS
(3) HORTON [USC00143810], Horton, KS
(4) PERRY LAKE [USC00146333], Perry, KS
(5) ASHLAND NO 2 [USC00250375], Ashland, NE
(6) TECUMSEH 1S [USC00258465], Tecumseh, NE
(7) TOPEKA MUNI AP [USW00013996], Topeka, KS
(8) LINCOLN UNIV PWR PLT [USW00014971], Lincoln, NE
(9) MARYSVILLE [USC00145063], Marysville, KS
(10) PAWNEE CITY [USC00256570], Pawnee City, NE
(11) CLINTON LAKE [USC00141612], Lawrence, KS
(12) HIAWATHA 9 ESE [USC00143634], Robinson, KS
(13) VIRGINIA [USC00258875], Virginia, NE
(14) WEEPING WATER [USC00259090], Weeping Water, NE
(15) LINCOLN MUNI AP [USW00014939], Lincoln, NE
(16) LAWRENCE [USC00144559], Lawrence, KS
(17) OSKALOOSA 4 NE [USC00146100], Mc Louth, KS
(18) AUBURN 5 ESE [USC00250435], Auburn, NE
(19) BEATRICE 1N [USC00250622], Beatrice, NE
(20) CRETE [USC00252020], Crete, NE
(21) MEAD 6S [USC00255362], Ithaca, NE
(22) RAYMOND 2NE [USC00257055], Raymond, NE
(23) SYRACUSE [USC00258395], Syracuse, NE
(24) TABLE ROCK 4 N [USC00258410], Table Rock, NE
(25) WAHOO [USC00258905], Wahoo, NE

Soil features

The soils associated with the Loamy Floodplain ecological site are located in flood plains of river valleys and drainageways in valleys. Slopes range from 0 to 2 percent. These soils were formed in alluvium. Soil is very deep with fine sandy loam, silt loam, or silty clay loam surface textures. Most soils are moderately well to well drained and typically receive extra water from runoff. They are subject to flooding. The saturated hydraulic conductivity is moderately high, and the depth to carbonates is over 200 centimeters. The weighted average of the clay content in the particle size control section ranges from 18 to 35 percent, while the content of sand is less than 10 percent fine sand, or sand coarser than fine.

The major soil series correlated to this ecological site are Bismarkgrove, Eudora, Kennebec, and Nodaway. Additional information can be found in the various soil survey reports. Contact the local USDA Service Center for soil survey reports that include more detail specific to your location or visit Web Soil Survey (https://websoilsurvey.sc.egov.usda.gov).

Figure 9. Kennebec soil profile in MLRA 106.

Table 4. Representative soil features

Parent material	(1) Alluvium
Surface texture	(1) Silt loam (2) Fine sandy loam (3) Silty clay loam
Family particle size	(1) Loamy
Drainage class	Somewhat poorly drained to well drained
Permeability class	Moderately slow to moderate
Soil depth	60 in
Surface fragment cover <=3"	Not specified
Surface fragment cover >3"	Not specified
Available water capacity (0-40in)	5.9 – 10.6 in
Calcium carbonate equivalent (0-40in)	5%
Electrical conductivity (0-40in)	2 mmhos/cm
Sodium adsorption ratio (0-40in)	Not specified
Soil reaction (1:1 water) (0-40in)	5 – 8.4
Subsurface fragment volume <=3" (0-40in)	2%
Subsurface fragment volume >3" (0-40in)	Not specified

Ecological dynamics

Loamy Floodplain ecological sites developed under Central Great Plains climatic conditions, light to severe grazing by bison and other large herbivores, sporadic natural or man caused wildfire, and other biotic and abiotic factors that typically influence soil and site development. This continues to be a disturbance driven site by herbivory, fire, and variable climate. Changes occur in the plant communities due to short term weather variations, impacts of native and/or exotic plant and animal species, and management actions. The landscape position and association with streams make this site somewhat less susceptible to fire, which allowed woody species to become more abundant than on less sheltered sites in the MLRA.

One of the primary impacts to this site introduced by European settlement of North America is season long continuous grazing by domestic livestock. This management practice causes the repeated removal of the growing point and excessive defoliation of the leaf area of individual warm-season tall grasses. The resulting reduction of the plants ability to harvest sunlight depletes the root reserves, subsequently decreasing the root mass. This negatively impacts the ability of plants to compete for life sustaining nutrients resulting in declining vigor and eventual mortality. The space created in the vegetative community is then occupied by a species that avoids the negative grazing impacts by a growing season adaptation such as a cool-season, shorter structure, or a reduced palatability mechanism.

The State and Transition Model (STM) is depicted following this section and includes a Reference State (1), a Native/Invaded Grass State (2), a Sod-busted State (3), and an Invaded Woody State (4). Each state represents the crossing of a major ecological threshold due to alteration of the functional dynamic properties of the ecosystem. The main properties observed to determine this change are the soil and vegetative communities, and the hydrological cycle.

Each state may have one or more vegetative communities that fluctuate in species composition and abundance within the normal parameters of the state. Within each state, communities may degrade or recover in response to natural and man caused disturbances such as variation in the degree and timing of herbivory, presence or absence of fire, and climatic and local fluctuations in the precipitation regime.

Interpretations are primarily based on the Reference State and have been determined by study of rangeland relic areas, areas protected from excessive disturbance, and areas under long term rotational grazing regimes. Trends in plant community dynamics have been interpreted from observation of heavily grazed to lightly grazed areas, seasonal use pastures, and historical accounts, as have plant communities, states, transitional pathways, and thresholds.

State and transition model

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Click on state and transition labels to scroll to the respective text

Ecosystem states

1. Reference State

2. Native/Invaded Grass State

3. Sod-busted State

4. Invaded Woody State

T1A	-	Heavy grazing or haying with inadequate recovery periods.
T1B	-	Tillage to facilitate production agriculture.
T1C	-	Woody encroachment and absence of fire and brush management.
T 2A	-	Tillage to facilitate production agriculture.
T 2B	-	Woody encroachment and absence of fire and brush management.
T 3A	-	Woody encroachment and absence of fire and brush management.
R4A	-	Prescribed burning, wildfire, harvest, and brush management.
R4B	-	Prescribed burning, wildfire, harvest, and brush management.
R4C	-	Prescribed burning, wildfire, harvest, and brush management.

State 1 submodel, plant communities

1.1. Reference Community

1.2. Degraded Native Grass Community

1.3. At-Risk Community

1.4. Excessive Litter Community

1.1A	-	Grazing or haying with inadequate growing season recovery periods
1.1B	-	Prolonged absence (> 5 years) of grazing and fire.
1.2A	-	Prescribed grazing during the cool-season portion of the growing season.
1.2B	-	Continuation of grazing or haying with inadequate growing season recovery periods.
1.2C	-	Prolonged (> 5 years) absence of herbivory and fire.
1.3A	-	Prescribed, targeted grazing during the cool-season portion of growing season.
1.3B	-	Prolonged (> 5 years) absence of herbivory and fire.
1.4A	-	Reintroduction of grazing and fire.
1.4B	-	Reintroduction of grazing and fire.
1.4C	-	Reintroduction of grazing and fire.

State 1
Reference State

The Reference State (1) describes the range of vegetative community phases that occur on the Loamy Floodplain ecological site where the natural processes are mostly intact. The Reference Community (1.1) is a representation of the native plant community phase that occupies a site that has been minimally altered by management. The Degraded Native Grass (1.2), the At-Risk (1.3), and the Excessive Litter (1.4) Communities are the phases that result from management decisions that are unfavorable for a healthy Reference Community (1.1). High perennial grass cover and production allows for increased soil moisture retention, vegetative production, and overall soil quality.

Dominant plant species

big bluestem (Andropogon gerardii), grass
switchgrass (Panicum virgatum), grass
Indiangrass (Sorghastrum nutans), grass
eastern gamagrass (Tripsacum dactyloides), grass
prairie cordgrass (Spartina pectinata), grass
little bluestem (Schizachyrium scoparium), grass
blue grama (Bouteloua gracilis), grass
western wheatgrass (Pascopyrum smithii), grass
compassplant (Silphium laciniatum), other herbaceous
wholeleaf rosinweed (Silphium integrifolium), other herbaceous
Maximilian sunflower (Helianthus maximiliani), other herbaceous
goldenrod (Solidago), other herbaceous
white heath aster (Symphyotrichum ericoides), other herbaceous

Community 1.1
Reference Community

Figure 10. Loamy Floodplain ecological site, Reference Community (1.1) in Eastern Nebraska, MLRA 106.

The Reference Community or Native Tallgrass Prairie Community (1.1) serves as a description of the native plant community that naturally occurs on the site when the natural disturbance regimes are intact or are closely mimicked by management practices. This phase is dynamic, with fluid relative abundance and spatial boundaries between the dominant structural vegetative groups. These fluctuations are primarily driven by different responses of the species to changes in precipitation timing and abundance, and to fire and grazing events. The potential vegetation consists of approximately 80 to 90 percent grasses and grass-like plants, 5 to 10 percent forbs, 0 to 5 percent shrubs, and 0 to 2 percent deciduous trees. Big bluestem, Indiangrass, eastern gamagrass, prairie cordgrass, and switchgrass are the primary species in this community. Secondary species include little bluestem, sedges, dropseed, grama grasses, and western wheatgrass. The site has a diverse forb population. A deciduous woody population also may be present. This plant community is highly productive, diverse, and resistant to short term stresses such as drought and short periods of heavy stocking. The well-developed root systems support resiliency when allowed adequate recovery periods between grazing events. When exposed to long term or frequent over grazing events without adequate rest, this plant community will degrade. The average annual total vegetative production of this community ranges from a minimum of 4,000 lbs. per acre in the north, to a maximum of 9,000 lbs. per acre in the southern part of the MLRA. The production and species data depicted in the associated species composition table are from the northern end of the MLRA and should be interpreted accordingly. Some of the species discussed in the narrative originate from sources independent of the plant table. While prairie cordgrass and eastern gamagrass are common throughout the MLRA, they were not present in the data collection projects that provided the production data for the following plant table.

Dominant plant species

eastern cottonwood (Populus deltoides), tree
leadplant (Amorpha canescens), shrub
big bluestem (Andropogon gerardii), grass
Indiangrass (Sorghastrum nutans), grass
switchgrass (Panicum virgatum), grass
eastern gamagrass (Tripsacum dactyloides), grass
compassplant (Silphium laciniatum), other herbaceous
wholeleaf rosinweed (Silphium integrifolium), other herbaceous
Maximilian sunflower (Helianthus maximiliani), other herbaceous

Figure 11. Annual production by plant type (representative values) or group (midpoint values)

Table 5. Annual production by plant type

Plant type	Low (lb/acre)	Representative value (lb/acre)	High (lb/acre)
Grass/Grasslike	3425	3720	3820
Forb	75	140	400
Shrub/Vine	0	100	200
Tree	0	40	80
Total	3500	4000	4500

Figure 12. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). NE1064, Nebraska and Kansas Loess-Drift Hills. Warm season dominant with occasional overflow.

Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun	Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec
J	F	M	A	M	J	J	A	S	O	N	D
0	1	4	10	25	30	14	8	5	2	1	0

Community 1.2
Degraded Native Grass Community

In the Degraded Native Grass Community (1.2), big bluestem, switchgrass, Indiangrass, eastern gamagrass, prairie cordgrass, and other desirable species lose productive capacity through loss of vigor and reproductive potential. Forb diversity is reduced. Maximillian sunflower, rosinweed, and compass plant numbers decline. Ironweed and other less palatable species increase. Warm-season mid grasses and cool-season species such as little bluestem, sideoats grama, dropseeds, western wheatgrass, and various sedges increase. Non-native, cool-season grasses may be present in trace amounts. This community phase signals a significant loss of production. This shift in the plant community is often due to continuous, season long grazing or rotational grazing with inadequate recovery periods during the growing season. Haying with inadequate growing season recovery will also cause this change. Warm-season mid and short grasses and cool-season grasses increase. The composition of the forb component remains diverse. The potential for encroachment by invasive woody species becomes more likely due to fewer deep-rooted species and a reduced fuel load to carry fire. While this plant community is less productive and less diverse than the Reference Community (1.1), it remains sustainable in regard to site/soil stability, hydrologic function, and biotic integrity. The average annual vegetative production in the northern portion of the MLRA is 3,200 lbs./acre.

Dominant plant species

eastern cottonwood (Populus deltoides), tree
smooth sumac (Rhus glabra), shrub
little bluestem (Schizachyrium scoparium), grass
sideoats grama (Bouteloua curtipendula), grass
western wheatgrass (Pascopyrum smithii), grass
blue grama (Bouteloua gracilis), grass

Community 1.3
At-Risk Community

In the At-Risk Community (1.3) the more palatable warm-season tall grasses have been reduced to a minor component of the plant community with continued defoliation during their critical growth periods. Warm-season short grasses and cool-season grasses have increased significantly. Dropseeds, sideoats grama, blue grama, western wheatgrass, and sedges dominate the plant community. Non-native, cool-season grasses may be present as a minor functional/structural group and include Kentucky bluegrass, smooth brome or tall fescue. Annual bromes may be present, often in abundance. Palatable forbs have been reduced, and goldenrod, ironweed, and heath aster are the dominant forbs. Soil health is affected by reduced efficiency in the nutrient, mineral, and hydrologic cycles as a result of decreases in plant litter and rooting depths. Total annual vegetative production declines significantly. Without a management change, this community is at-risk of crossing a threshold to the Native/Invaded Grass State (2).

Dominant plant species

eastern cottonwood (Populus deltoides), tree
sideoats grama (Bouteloua curtipendula), grass
prairie dropseed (Sporobolus heterolepis), grass
composite dropseed (Sporobolus compositus), grass
blue grama (Bouteloua gracilis), grass
western wheatgrass (Pascopyrum smithii), grass
white heath aster (Symphyotrichum ericoides), other herbaceous
goldenrod (Solidago), other herbaceous
ironweed (Vernonia), other herbaceous

Figure 13. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). NE1069, MLRA 106 Warm/cool-season mix.

Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun	Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec
J	F	M	A	M	J	J	A	S	O	N	D
0	1	4	10	23	26	17	8	6	4	1	0

Community 1.4
Excessive Litter Community

The Excessive Litter Community (1.4) develops when the natural disturbances of herbivory and fire are removed from the landscape. Litter significantly exceeds the amount expected on the site and the species present can tolerate a thatch layer. Individual plants tend to be clumped and there is an excessive amount of litter. Species that cannot tolerate an extensive litter layer have low vigor and reduced productivity. Once the undisturbed litter layer develops to a certain level, a significant amount of precipitation is held in this layer, increasing evaporation, limiting soil available moisture, and simulating drought conditions. If herbivory or fire are not reintroduced, the plant community will experience a significant amount of death loss.

Dominant plant species

eastern cottonwood (Populus deltoides), tree
smooth sumac (Rhus glabra), shrub
big bluestem (Andropogon gerardii), grass
western wheatgrass (Pascopyrum smithii), grass
Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis), grass

Pathway 1.1A
Community 1.1 to 1.2

A shift from the Reference Community (1.1) to the Degraded Native Grass Community (1.2) occurs with continuous season long grazing or rotational grazing with inadequate growing season recovery periods (deferment). The shift can also occur when the land is hayed without adequate recovery time between cuttings.

Pathway 1.1B
Community 1.1 to 1.4

Prolonged interruption (greater than 5 years) of the natural disturbances of herbivory and fire will convert the Reference Community (1.1) to the Excessive Litter Community (1.4).

Pathway 1.2A
Community 1.2 to 1.1

A shift from the Degraded Native Grass Community (1.2) toward the Reference Community (1.1) can be achieved through prescribed grazing. Applying grazing pressure during the growth period of cool-season grasses and applying deferment during the warm-season portion of the growing season favors tall grass species. This grazing strategy will enable the deeply rooted, warm-season tall grasses to recover and out compete the shallow rooted warm-season mid and short grasses and the cool-season grasses. Appropriately timed prescribed fire will accelerate this process.

Conservation practices

Prescribed Burning
Prescribed Grazing

Pathway 1.2B
Community 1.2 to 1.3

Continuation of grazing or haying with inadequate, growing season recovery periods further degrades the Degraded Native Grass Community (1.2) to the At-Risk Community (1.3).

Pathway 1.2C
Community 1.2 to 1.4

Prolonged interruption (greater than 5 years) of the natural disturbances of herbivory and fire will convert the Degraded Native Grass Community (1.1) to the Excessive Litter Community (1.4).

Pathway 1.3A
Community 1.3 to 1.2

Reversing the downward trend which resulted in the At Risk Community (1.3) and moving toward the Degraded Native Grass Community (1.2) can be achieved with prescribed grazing early and late in the growing season to reduce the abundance of cool-season grasses. Targeting the peak growth period of cool-season grasses with high intensity grazing events followed by recovery during the warm-season portion of the growing season will allow the native, warm-season tall grasses to rejuvenate. Appropriately timed prescribed fire will accelerate this process.

Conservation practices

Prescribed Burning
Prescribed Grazing

Pathway 1.3B
Community 1.3 to 1.4

Prolonged (greater than five years) interruption of the natural disturbances of herbivory and fire will convert the At Risk Community (1.3) to the Excessive Litter Community (1.4).

Pathway 1.4A
Community 1.4 to 1.1

Reintroduction of the natural processes of herbivory and fire will allow the vegetation of the Excessive Litter Community (1.4) to return to the Reference Community (1.1).

Conservation practices

Prescribed Burning
Prescribed Grazing

Pathway 1.4B
Community 1.4 to 1.2

Reintroduction of the natural processes of herbivory and fire will allow the vegetation of the Excessive Litter Community (1.4) to return to the Degraded Native Grass Community (1.2).

Conservation practices

Prescribed Burning
Prescribed Grazing

Pathway 1.4C
Community 1.4 to 1.3

Reintroduction of the natural processes of herbivory and fire will allow the vegetation of the Excessive Litter Community (1.4) to return to the At-Risk Community (1.3).

Conservation practices

Prescribed Burning
Prescribed Grazing

State 2
Native/Invaded Grass State

The Native/Invaded Grass State (2) has transitioned from the Reference State (1) and much of the native, warm-season tall and mid grass community has been replaced by less desirable plants. The loss of warm-season tall and mid grasses has negatively impacted energy flow and nutrient cycling. Water infiltration is reduced due to the shallow root system and rapid runoff characteristics of the grazing adapted plant communities. Warm-season short grasses and cool season grasses dominant the plant communities. The Shortgrass Sod/Invaded Grass (2.1) and the Invaded Cool-Season Grass (2.2) Communities are the components of the Native/Invaded Grass State (2).

Dominant plant species

eastern cottonwood (Populus deltoides), tree
smooth sumac (Rhus glabra), shrub
blue grama (Bouteloua gracilis), grass
composite dropseed (Sporobolus compositus), grass
smooth brome (Bromus inermis), grass
tall fescue (Schedonorus arundinaceus), grass

Community 2.1
Shortgrass Sod/Invaded Grass Community

The Shortgrass Sod/Invaded Grass Community (2.1) represents a shift from the Reference State (1) across a plant community threshold. With continued grazing pressure, Kentucky bluegrass, smooth brome or tall fescue, blue grama and dropseeds will become the dominant plant species. Trace remnants of the more palatable warm-season tall and mid grasses may be present. Continuous and heavy grazing pressure will maintain this plant community in a sod bound condition. Forb richness and diversity has decreased, and the dominant forbs include ironweed and heath aster. With the decline and loss of deeper penetrating root systems, a compacted layer may form in the soil profile below the shallower replacement root systems. Grazing management practices that allow for adequate periods of recovery between grazing events will favor warm-season, tall and mid grasses. Appropriately timed prescribed fire will accelerate the restoration process.

Dominant plant species

eastern cottonwood (Populus deltoides), tree
smooth sumac (Rhus glabra), shrub
blue grama (Bouteloua gracilis), grass
composite dropseed (Sporobolus compositus), grass
smooth brome (Bromus inermis), grass
tall fescue (Schedonorus arundinaceus), grass
ironweed (Vernonia), other herbaceous
white heath aster (Symphyotrichum ericoides), other herbaceous
Cuman ragweed (Ambrosia psilostachya), other herbaceous

Figure 14. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). NE1067, Nebraska and Kansas Loess Drift Hills. Invaded cool season dominant.

Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun	Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec
J	F	M	A	M	J	J	A	S	O	N	D
0	0	5	13	28	28	12	5	6	3	0	0

Community 2.2
Invaded Cool-Season Grass Community

The Invaded Cool-Season Grass Community (2.2) is dominated by smooth brome in the northern portion of the MLRA or tall fescue in the southern portion. Annual bromes and other annual grasses may have a significant presence. Plant diversity is very low. Some warm-season remnants may be present. Production of this plant community is highly variable, depending upon the percentages of species present, and outside inputs such as fertilizer and weed control.

Dominant plant species

smooth brome (Bromus inermis), grass
tall fescue (Schedonorus arundinaceus), grass

Figure 15. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). NE1067, Nebraska and Kansas Loess Drift Hills. Invaded cool season dominant.

Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun	Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec
J	F	M	A	M	J	J	A	S	O	N	D
0	0	5	13	28	28	12	5	6	3	0	0

Pathway 2.1A
Community 2.1 to 2.2

The Shortgrass Sod/Invaded Grass Community (2.1) will be converted to a smooth brome/fescue community through the following practices: Introduced grass seeding, excessive warm season grazing, inadequate warm season rest, multi season haying, and nitrogen fertilizing in the spring or fall.

State 3
Sod-busted State

The threshold to the Sod-busted State (3) is crossed as a result of mechanical disturbance to facilitate production agriculture. Extensive areas of this ecological site were plowed and converted to crop production by early European settlers and their subsequent generations. In addition to permanently altering the existing vegetative community, repeated tillage negatively impacted soil properties. Reductions in organic matter, mineral levels, soil structure, oxygen levels, and water holding capacity along with increased runoff and erosion as well as shifts in the populations of soil dwelling organisms were common on these sites. The extent of these changes depended upon the duration of cropping as well as crops grown and other management practices. If farming operations are suspended, the site can be abandoned or seeded to permanent vegetation. Seedings are either a tame pasture forage mixture, the Seeded Pasture Community (3.2), or a mixture of native grasses and forbs, the Reseeded Native Grass Community (3.1). Abandonment results in the Natural Reclamation Community (3.3). Permanent alterations of the soil, plant community, and the hydrologic cycle make restoration to the Reference State (1) extremely difficult, if not impossible.

Community 3.1
Reseeded Native Grass Community

The Reseeded Native Grass Community (3.1) does not contain native remnants, and varies considerably depending upon the seed mixture, the degree of soil erosion, the age of the stand, fertility management, and past grazing management. Prescribed grazing with adequate recovery periods will be required to maintain productivity and desirable species. Native range and grasslands seeded to native species are ecologically different and should be managed separately. Factors such as functional group, species, stand density, and improved varieties all impact the production level and palatability of the seedings. Species diversity is often limited, and when grazed in conjunction with native rangelands, uneven forage utilization may occur. Total annual production during an average year varies significantly depending upon precipitation, management, and grass species seeded.

Community 3.2
Seeded Pasture Community

The Seeded Pasture Community (3.2) does not contain native remnants and varies considerably depending upon the extent of soil erosion, the species seeded, the quality of the stand that was established, the age of the stand, and management of the stand since establishment. There are several factors that make seeded tame pasture a different grazing resource than native rangeland and land seeded to a native grass mixture. Factors such as species selected, stand density, improved varieties, and harvest efficiency all impact production levels and palatability. Species diversity on seeded tame pasture is often limited to a few species. When seeded pasture and native rangelands or seeded pasture and seeded rangeland are in the same grazing unit, uneven forage utilization will occur. Improve forage utilization and stand longevity by managing this community separately from native rangelands or land seeded to native grass species. Total annual production during an average year varies significantly depending on the level of management and species seeded. Improved varieties of warm-season or cool-season grasses are recommended for optimum forage production.

Community 3.3
Natural Reclamation Community

The Natural Reclamation Community (3.3) consists of annual and perennial weeds and less desirable grasses. These sites have been farmed and abandoned without being reseeded. Soil organic matter and carbon reserves are reduced, soil structure is changed, and a plowpan or compacted layer can form, which decreases water infiltration. Residual synthetic chemicals may remain from farming operations. In early successional stages, this community is not stable. The hazard of erosion is a concern. Total annual production during an average year varies significantly depending on the succession stage of the plant community and any management applied to the system.

State 4
Invaded Woody State

The Invaded Woody State (4) is the result of woody encroachment. Once the tree canopy cover reaches 15 percent with an average tree height exceeding five feet, the threshold is crossed. Woody species are encroaching due to lack of prescribed fire and other brush management practices. Typical ecological impacts are a loss of native grasses, degraded forage productivity, and reduced soil quality. This state consists of the Invaded Woody Community (4.1) Prescribed burning, wildfire, timber harvest and brush management will move the Invaded Woody State (4) toward a grass dominated state. If the Invaded Woody State (4) transitioned from the Native/Invaded Grass State (2) or the Sod-busted State (3), the land cannot be restored to the Reference State (1) as the native plant community, soils, and hydrologic function has been too severely impacted prior to the woody encroachment to allow restoration to the Reference State. This state consists of the Invaded Woody Community.

Dominant plant species

honeylocust (Gleditsia triacanthos), tree
elm (Ulmus), tree
green ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica), tree
oak (Quercus), tree
eastern cottonwood (Populus deltoides), tree
eastern redcedar (Juniperus virginiana), tree
composite dropseed (Sporobolus compositus), grass
prairie dropseed (Sporobolus heterolepis), grass
western wheatgrass (Pascopyrum smithii), grass
Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis), grass

Community 4.1
Invaded Woody Community

Figure 16. Loamy Floodplain ecological site, Invaded Woody Community (4.1) in Doniphan County Kansas, MLRA 106.

The Invaded Woody Community (4.1) has at least 15 percent canopy cover consisting of trees generally 5 feet or taller. Honey locust, elm, ash, oak, and cottonwood are some of the deciduous invaders while eastern red cedar is the primary evergreen encroacher. In the absence of fire and brush management, this ecological site is very susceptible to eastern red cedar seedling invasion, especially when adjacent to a seed source. Eastern red cedar can eventually dominate the site resulting in a closed canopy monoculture which drastically reduces forage production, and which has limited value for either livestock grazing or wildlife habitat. Due to fire suppression over many years, this plant community will develop extensive ladder fuels which can lead to a removal of most tree species with a wildfire. With properly managed intensive grazing, encroachment of deciduous trees will be minimal; however, this will not impact encroachment of conifer species. The herbaceous component decreases proportionately in relation to the percent canopy cover, with the reduction being greater under a conifer overstory. Eastern red cedar control can usually be accomplished with prescribed burning while the trees are six feet tall or less and fine fuel production is greater than 1,500 pounds per acres. Larger red cedars can also be controlled with prescribed burning, but successful application requires the use of specifically designed ignition and holding techniques (https://www.loesscanyonsburngroup.com). Re-sprouting brush and trees must be chemically treated immediately after mechanical removal to achieve effective treatment. The forb component will initially increase following tree removal. To prevent return to a woody dominated community, ongoing brush management such as hand cutting, chemical spot treatments, or periodic prescribed burning is required .This plant community is resistant to change and resilient given normal disturbances. In higher canopy cover situations, the soil erosion will increase in relation to most of the plant communities from which this plant community originated. The water cycle is also significantly altered under higher canopy cover. Infiltration is reduced and runoff is typically increased because of a lack of herbaceous cover and the rooting structure provided by the herbaceous species. Total annual production during an average year varies significantly, depending on the production level prior to encroachment and the percentage of canopy cover.

Transition T1A
State 1 to 2

Heavy grazing or haying with inadequate recovery periods (deferment) will cause the Reference State (1) to lose a significant proportion of warm-season, tall and mid grass species and cross a threshold to the Native/Invaded Grass State (2). Water infiltration and other hydrologic functions will be reduced due to the root matting presence of sod forming grasses. With the decline and loss of deeper penetrating root systems, soil structure and biological integrity are degraded to the point that recovery is unlikely. Once this occurs, it is highly unlikely that grazing management alone will return the community to the Reference State (1).

Transition T1B
State 1 to 3

The Reference State (1) is significantly altered by mechanical tillage converting site to the Sod-busted State (3) to facilitate production agriculture. The disruption to the plant community, the soil, and the hydrology of the system make restoration to a true reference state unlikely.

Transition T1C
State 1 to 4

Disruption of the natural fire regime and the encroachment of invasive exotic and native woody species can cause the Reference State (1) to shift to the Invaded Woody State (4).

Transition T 2A
State 2 to 3

The Native/Invaded Grass State (2) is significantly altered by mechanical tillage converting site to the Sod-busted State (3) to facilitate production agriculture. The disruption to the plant community, the soil, and the hydrology of the system make restoration to a true reference state unlikely.

Transition T 2B
State 2 to 4

Disruption of the natural fire regime and the encroachment of invasive exotic and native woody species can cause Native/Invaded Grass State (2) to shift to the Invaded Woody State (4).

Transition T 3A
State 3 to 4

Disruption of the natural fire regime and the encroachment of invasive exotic and native woody species can cause the Sod-busted State (3) to shift to the Invaded Woody State (4).

Restoration pathway R4A
State 4 to 1

Prescribed burning, wildfire, harvest, and brush management will move the Invaded Woody State (4) toward the Reference State (1). The forb component of a site with heavy tree density or canopy cover may initially increase following tree removal through mechanical brush management treatments and prescribed fire. If re-sprouting brush is present, stumps must be chemically treated immediately after mechanical removal. Ongoing brush management such as hand cutting, chemical spot treatments, or periodic prescribed burning is required to prevent a return to the Invaded Woody State (4). Land that transitioned to the Invaded Woody State (4) from the Native/Invaded Grass State (2) or the Sod-busted State (3) cannot be restored to the Reference State (1) through removal of woody species.

Conservation practices

Brush Management
Prescribed Burning
Prescribed Grazing

Restoration pathway R4B
State 4 to 2

Prescribed burning, wildfire, harvest, and brush management will move the Invaded Woody State (4) toward the Native/Invaded Grass State (2). The forb component of a site with heavy tree density or canopy cover may initially increase following tree removal through mechanical brush management treatments and prescribed fire. If re-sprouting brush is present, stumps must be chemically treated immediately after mechanical removal. Ongoing brush management such as hand cutting, chemical spot treatments, or periodic prescribed burning is required to prevent a return to the Invaded Woody State (4). Land that transitioned to the Invaded Woody State (4) from the Native/Invaded Grass State (2) or the Sod-busted State (3) cannot be restored to the Reference State (1) through removal of woody species.

Conservation practices

Brush Management
Prescribed Burning
Prescribed Grazing

Restoration pathway R4C
State 4 to 3

Prescribed burning, wildfire, harvest, and brush management will move the Invaded Woody State (4) toward the Sod-busted State (3). The forb component of a site with heavy tree density or canopy cover may initially increase following tree removal through mechanical brush management treatments and prescribed fire. If re-sprouting brush is present, stumps must be chemically treated immediately after mechanical removal. Ongoing brush management such as hand cutting, chemical spot treatments, or periodic prescribed burning is required to prevent a return to the Invaded Woody State (4). Land that transitioned to the Invaded Woody State (4) from the Native/Invaded Grass State (2) or the Sod-busted State (3) cannot be restored to the Reference State (1) through removal of woody species.

Conservation practices

Brush Management
Prescribed Burning
Prescribed Grazing

Additional community tables

Table 6. Community 1.1 plant community composition

Group	Common name	Symbol	Scientific name	Annual production (lb/acre)	Foliar cover (%)
Grass/Grasslike
1	Warm-Season Tallgrass			1400–2000
	big bluestem	ANGE	Andropogon gerardii	1000–1600	–
	Indiangrass	SONU2	Sorghastrum nutans	200–600	–
	eastern gamagrass	TRDA3	Tripsacum dactyloides	0–600	–
	prairie cordgrass	SPPE	Spartina pectinata	0–400	–
	switchgrass	PAVI2	Panicum virgatum	200–400	–
	Grass, perennial	2GP	Grass, perennial	0–200	–
2	Warm-Season Midgrass			1000–1400
	little bluestem	SCSC	Schizachyrium scoparium	800–1200	–
	sideoats grama	BOCU	Bouteloua curtipendula	200–400	–
	composite dropseed	SPCOC2	Sporobolus compositus var. compositus	0–200	–
	Grass, perennial	2GP	Grass, perennial	0–200	–
3	Native Cool-Season Grasses			200–400
	western wheatgrass	PASM	Pascopyrum smithii	80–400	–
	needle and thread	HECOC8	Hesperostipa comata ssp. comata	40–200	–
	porcupinegrass	HESP11	Hesperostipa spartea	0–200	–
	Grass, perennial	2GP	Grass, perennial	0–200	–
	Scribner's rosette grass	DIOLS	Dichanthelium oligosanthes var. scribnerianum	0–120	–
	Canada wildrye	ELCA4	Elymus canadensis	0–80	–
	prairie Junegrass	KOMA	Koeleria macrantha	0–80	–
4	Warm-Season Shortgrass			40–200
	blue grama	BOGR2	Bouteloua gracilis	0–200	–
	Grass, perennial	2GP	Grass, perennial	0–40	–
5	Grass-Like			80–200
	sedge	CAREX	Carex	80–200	–
	Grass-like, perennial	2GLP	Grass-like, perennial	0–40	–
Forb
6	Forb			200–400
	Forb, perennial	2FP	Forb, perennial	40–200	–
	Cuman ragweed	AMPS	Ambrosia psilostachya	0–80	–
	white heath aster	SYER	Symphyotrichum ericoides	0–80	–
	spiderwort	TRADE	Tradescantia	0–80	–
	purple prairie clover	DAPUA	Dalea purpurea var. arenicola	0–80	–
	scarlet beeblossom	GACO5	Gaura coccinea	0–80	–
	hairy false goldenaster	HEVI4	Heterotheca villosa	0–80	–
	dotted blazing star	LIPU	Liatris punctata	0–80	–
	Nuttall's sensitive-briar	MINU6	Mimosa nuttallii	0–80	–
	evening primrose	OENOT	Oenothera	0–80	–
	silverleaf Indian breadroot	PEAR6	Pediomelum argophyllum	0–80	–
	beardtongue	PENST	Penstemon	0–80	–
	slimflower scurfpea	PSTE5	Psoralidium tenuiflorum	0–80	–
	upright prairie coneflower	RACO3	Ratibida columnifera	0–80	–
	ragwort	SENEC	Senecio	0–40	–
	goldenrod	SOLID	Solidago	0–40	–
	white sagebrush	ARLU	Artemisia ludoviciana	0–40	–
	compassplant	SILA3	Silphium laciniatum	0–40	–
Shrub/Vine
7	Shrub			0–200
	Shrub (>.5m)	2SHRUB	Shrub (>.5m)	0–120	–
	leadplant	AMCA6	Amorpha canescens	0–120	–
	prairie rose	ROAR3	Rosa arkansana	0–80	–
	western snowberry	SYOC	Symphoricarpos occidentalis	0–40	–
	smooth sumac	RHGL	Rhus glabra	0–40	–
Tree
8	Tree			0–80
	Tree	2TREE	Tree	0–40	–
	eastern cottonwood	PODE3	Populus deltoides	0–20	–
	elm	ULMUS	Ulmus	0–20	–
	oak	QUERC	Quercus	0–20	–
	green ash	FRPE	Fraxinus pennsylvanica	0–20	–

Interpretations

Animal community

LIVESTOCK – GRAZING INTERPRETATIONS:
Grazing by domestic livestock is one of the major income producing industries in the area. Rangeland in this area may provide yearlong forage for cattle, sheep, or horses. During the dormant period, the protein levels of the forage may be lower than the minimum needed to meet livestock (primarily cattle and sheep) requirements. The following table lists suggested stocking rates for cattle under continuous season long grazing under normal growing conditions. These are conservative estimates that should be used only as guidelines in the initial stages of the conservation planning process. Often, the current plant composition does not entirely match any particular plant community (as described in this ecological site description). Because of this, a field visit is recommended, in all cases, to document plant composition and production. More precise carrying capacity estimates should eventually be calculated using this information along with animal preference data, particularly when grazers other than cattle are involved. With consultation of the land manager, more intensive grazing management may result in improved harvest efficiencies and increased carrying capacity.

Production and Carrying Capacity*
Community 1.1, Reference Community (north): 4,000 lbs/acre, 1.10 AUM/acre
Community 1.1, Reference Community (south): 9,000 lbs/acre, 2.50 AUM/acre

*Based upon the following conditions: continuous season long grazing with cattle under average growing conditions, 25 percent harvest efficiency. Air dry forage requirements are based on 3 percent of animal body weight or 790 lbs per animal unit (AU) per month (M). An AU is generally one mature cow of approximately 1,000 pounds and a calf as old as 6 months or their equivalent.

WILDLIFE INTERPRETATIONS:
Major Land Resource Area (MLRA) 106 lies primarily within the tall grass prairie ecosystem. Prior to European settlement of North America, this area consisted of diverse grassland habitats interspersed with varying densities of depressional wetlands and limited woody riparian corridors. These habitats provided critical life cycle components for the grassland birds, prairie dogs, and herds of roaming bison, elk, and pronghorn that historically occupied this landscape. Diverse populations of small mammals and insects provided a bountiful prey base for raptors and omnivores such as coyotes, foxes, raccoons, and opossums. Bobcats, wolves, and mountain lions occupied the apex predator niche. In addition, a wide variety of reptiles and amphibians thrived in this landscape.

The tall grass prairie was a disturbance driven ecosystem with fire, herbivory, and climate functioning as the primary disturbances. Following European settlement of North America, elimination of fire, widespread conversion to cropland, and other sources of habitat fragmentation significantly altered the appearance and functionality of the entire ecosystem. The reduced stability of the system is reflected by major changes in the composition and abundance of the native flora and fauna. Introduced and invading species further degrade the ecological integrity of the plant and animal communities. Bison and prairie dogs were historically keystone species, but free roaming bison herds and nearly all prairie dogs have been extirpated in this region. The loss of bison and fire as ecological drivers greatly influenced the character of the remaining native grasslands and the habitats they provide.

Historically, an ecological mosaic of the sites provided habitat for species requiring unfragmented grasslands. Important habitat features and components found commonly or exclusively on modern day remnants include upland nesting habitat for grassland birds and game birds; nesting and escape cover for waterfowl; forbs and insects for brood rearing habitat; and a forage source for small and large herbivores. Fragmentation has reduced habitat quality for numerous area sensitive species, as highlighted by the decline of the greater prairie chicken. Grassland nesting bird populations such as dickcissel and Henslow's sparrow are also declining. In this fragmented landscape, native grassland bird populations face increasing competition from the opportunistic European starlings and house sparrows and are subject to nest parasitism from brown headed cowbirds. Tree encroachment creates habitat that favors generalist species such as American robin and mourning dove, and provides perches for raptors, increasing the predation mortality. Introduced species such as smooth bromegrass, reed canarygrass, Kentucky bluegrass, nodding plumeless thistle (musk thistle), and Canada thistle further degrade the biological integrity of many of these remnant prairies.

1. REFERENCE STATE: The predominance of tall grasses and forbs in this community makes it ideal for grazers and mixed feeders. Pollinating insects play a significant role in maintaining the forb community and provide a food source for grassland birds and other grassland dependent species. The vegetative structural diversity provides habitat for reptiles, amphibians, and a wide array of native and introduced bird species. The abundant prey base supports populations of Swainson’s hawk, short eared and great horned owls, and other grassland raptors. The grasses, forbs, and shrubs provide high nutrition levels for small and large herbivores including moles, mice, ground squirrels, and white-tailed deer. The structure of this plant community provides suitable thermal, protective, and escape cover for small herbivores and grassland birds. Many wide-ranging predators utilize this plant community, including coyote, badger, red fox, and least and long tailed weasels. As the plant community degrades to more mid grasses and fewer tall grasses, less winter and escape cover are provided. It also provides less cover for predators.

Hydrological functions

The very deep, moderately well drained soils of the Loamy Floodplain ecological site place it in classes B and C of the hydrological rating scale. The proximity of groundwater to the rooting zone of the deeply rooted tall grasses during the growing season provides an abundance of water for the tall grass component of the vegetative community. Production can be very high.

Recreational uses

The Loamy Floodplain ecological site provides hunting for upland game species and white-tailed deer, along with hiking, photography, and bird watching. The wide varieties of plants which bloom from spring until fall have an aesthetic value that appeals to visitors.

Wood products

In MLRA 106, the Loamy Floodplain ecological sites often have scattered populations of deciduous trees. These stands can provide firewood, select hardwood finishing lumber, and in some cases, cottonwoods can be used to make pallets. In the Invaded Woody State (4) eastern red cedar may provide posts, and cedar boards from the larger trees.

Other products

None of significance.

Other information

Site Development and Testing Plan:
Additional data collection and evaluation will be needed to develop this ESD to the correlated level. This could include field activities to collect low, medium, and high intensity sampling, soil correlations, and analysis of that data. Field reviews of the project plan should be done by soil scientists and vegetation specialists.

Supporting information

Inventory data references

Information presented here has been derived from new and historic data collection, and field observations from range trained personnel.

Other references

Harms, R. 2009. Recovery outline for the Salt Creek tiger beetle (Cicindela nevadica lincolniana). Available online. http://www.fws.gov/mountain-prairie/species/invertebrates/saltcreektiger/FinalRecoveryOutlineFeb2009.pdf. Accessed 1/02/2018.

High Plains Regional Climate Center, University of Nebraska. Available online. http://hpcc.unl.edu. Accessed 12/05/16.

Johnsgaard, P.A. 2001. “The Nature of Nebraska.” University of Nebraska Press.

Muhs, Daniel R., E. Bettis III, J. Aleinikoff, J. McGeehin, J. Beann, G. Skipp, B. Marshall, H. Roberts, W. Johnson, and R. Benton. "Origin and paleoclimatic significance of late Quaternary loess in Nebraska: Evidence from stratigraphy, chronology, sedimentology, and geochemistry" (2008). USGS Staff -- Published Research, Paper 162. Available online. http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/usgsstaffpub/162. Accessed 12/05/16.

Spomer, S. and L. Higley. 2001. The Salt Creek Tiger Beetle. In: Bio-graphica International. Available online. http://drshigley.com/lgh/sctb/default.htm. Accessed 1/02/2018.

U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. NRCS National Ecological Site Handbook. Available online. https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detailfull/soils/ref/?cid=nrcseprd1291232 Accessed January, 2014.

U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. NRCS National Engineering Handbook, Section 4. Available online. https://directives.sc.egov.usda.gov/viewerFS.aspx?hid=21422.
Accessed August, 2011.

Personal communications with professional ecologists and wildlife experts.

Rolfsmeier, S.B. and G. Steinauer. 2010. "Terrestrial Ecological Systems and Natural Communities of Nebraska", (version IV). Nebraska Natural Heritage Program.

USDA, NRCS. National Water and Climate Center, Portland, OR. Available online. http://wcc.nrcs.usda.gov. Accessed 12/05/16.

USDA, NRCS.1997. National Range and Pasture Handbook.

USDA, NRCS. National Soil Information System, Information Technology Center, Fort Collins, CO. Available online. http://nasis.nrcs.usda.gov. Accessed 12/05/16.

USDA, NRCS. 2002. The PLANTS Database, Version 3.5. Available online. http://plants.usda.gov. Accessed 12/05/16.

USDA, NRCS Soil Surveys from: Butler, Saunders, Lancaster, Cass, Otoe, Nemaha, Johnson, Gage, Pawnee, Saline, Seward, Saunders, and Richardson Counties in Nebraska; and Atchison, Brown, Doniphan, Douglas, Franklin, Jackson, Jefferson, Johnson, Leavenworth, Marshall, Nemaha, Osage, Pottawatomie, Shawnee, Wabaunsee, Washington, and Wyandotte Counties in Kansas.

Contributors

Stu McFarland
Joe May
Doug Whisenhunt
Nadine Bishop

Approval

Suzanne Mayne-Kinney, 6/09/2025

Rangeland health reference sheet

Interpreting Indicators of Rangeland Health is a qualitative assessment protocol used to determine ecosystem condition based on benchmark characteristics described in the Reference Sheet. A suite of 17 (or more) indicators are typically considered in an assessment. The ecological site(s) representative of an assessment location must be known prior to applying the protocol and must be verified based on soils and climate. Current plant community cannot be used to identify the ecological site.

Author(s)/participant(s)	Original Authors: Joseph May and Doug Whisenhunt Version V Authors: Anna Ferguson, Aaron Hird, JustinLinder, Dusty Schwandt, Doug Spencer, Chris Tecklenburg, Nadine Bishop, Jeff Nichols
Contact for lead author	jeffrey.nichols@usda.gov
Date	11/20/2024
Approved by	Suzanne Mayne-Kinney
Approval date
Composition (Indicators 10 and 12) based on	Annual Production

Indicators

Number and extent of rills:
None. Rills are not expected on this site.
Presence of water flow patterns:
None. Water flow patterns are not expected on this site.
Number and height of erosional pedestals or terracettes:
None. Pedestals and terracettes are not expected to occur on this site.
Bare ground from Ecological Site Description or other studies (rock, litter, lichen, moss, plant canopy are not bare ground):
Bare ground is 5 percent or less. Bare ground is exposed mineral soil that is not covered by vegetation (basal and/or foliar canopy), litter, standing dead vegetation, gravel/rock, and visible biological crust (e.g., lichen, mosses, algae).
Number of gullies and erosion associated with gullies:
None. Gullies are not expected on this site.
Extent of wind scoured, blowouts and/or depositional areas:
None. Wind scoured and/or depositional areas are not expected on this site.
Amount of litter movement (describe size and distance expected to travel):
None. Litter movement is not expected on this site.
Soil surface (top few mm) resistance to erosion (stability values are averages - most sites will show a range of values):
Soil stability ratings will be 5 to 6, typically 6. High root content and organic matter will be present in the soil surface.
Soil surface structure and SOM content (include type of structure and A-horizon color and thickness):
The surface horizon (A) is typically 12 to 30 inches thick but may be thicker. Nodaway soils are thinner, and the A horizon may be as thin as 7 inches. Soil colors in the surface horizon are typically black, very dark grayish brown, or very dark gray (hue 10YR, value: 2 or 3, chroma: 1 or 2) when moist and grayish brown, dark grayish brown, or very dark grayish brown (hue: 10YR, value: 3 to 5, chroma: 1 or 2) when dry. Soil structure in the upper horizon is most often weak medium granular, weak fine granular, moderate fine granular parting to weak fine granular, or weak medium subangular blocky.

See Official Soils Descriptions (OSD) for additional details. The soil series correlated to the site include Colo, Calco, Kimo, Lamo, Muscotah, Paxico, and Zook.
Effect of community phase composition (relative proportion of different functional groups) and spatial distribution on infiltration and runoff:
Plant community composition of 80 to 90 percent grasses and grass-likes, 5 to 10 percent forbs, and 0 to 5 percent shrubs will optimize infiltration on the site. The grass and grass-like portion are composed of warm-season, tall grasses (35-50%), warm-season, mid grasses (25-35%), cool-season grasses (5-10%), warm-season, short grasses (1-5%), and grass-likes (2-5%). There may be a trace presence (0-2%) of native, deciduous trees on the site.
Infiltration can be adversely impacted by the invasion of Kentucky bluegrass, smooth brome, tall fescue, and trees when present above10 percent (subdominant designation).
Presence and thickness of compaction layer (usually none; describe soil profile features which may be mistaken for compaction on this site):
None. No compaction layers are expected for this site.
Functional/Structural Groups (list in order of descending dominance by above-ground annual-production or live foliar cover using symbols: >>, >, = to indicate much greater than, greater than, and equal to):

Dominant:
Phase 1.1:
1. Native, perennial, warm-season, tall grass (3 species minimum): big bluestem, Indiangrass, switchgrass, eastern gamagrass, prairie cordgrass.
2. Native, perennial, warm season, mid grass (2 species minimum): little bluestem, sideoats grama, composite dropseed, purple lovegrass.

Phase 1.2:
1. Native, perennial, warm-season, mid grass (2 species minimum): little bluestem, sideoats grama, composite dropseed.
2. Native, perennial, cool-season grass (2species minimum): western wheatgrass, Scribner's rosette grass, Canada wildrye, porcupinegrass, needleandthread, prairie junegrass.

Phase 1.3:
1. Native, perennial, warm-season, short grass (1 species minimum): blue grama.
2. Native, perennial, cool-season grass (2species minimum): western wheatgrass, Scribner's rosette grass, Canada wildrye, Virginia wildrye, porcupinegrass, prairie junegrass.

Sub-dominant:
Phase 1.2:
1. Native, perennial, warm-season, tall grass (2 species minimum): big bluestem, Indiangrass, switchgrass, eastern gamagrass, prairie cordgrass. 2. Native, perennial, warm-season, short grass (1 species minimum): blue Grama.

Phase 1.3:
1. Native, perennial, warm season, mid grass (2 species minimum): little bluestem, sideoats grama, prairie dropseed, purple lovegrass.
2. Grass-likes (1 species minimum): sedge.

Other:
Minor -
Phase 1.1:
1. Native, perennial, cool-season grass: western wheatgrass, Scribner's rosette grass, Canada wildrye, porcupinegrass, needleandthread, prairie junegrass.
2. Native forbs: forbs present vary from location to location.
3. Grass-likes: sedges.
4. Native, perennial, warm-season, short grass: blue grama.
5. Shrubs: leadplant, prairie rose, smooth sumac, western snowberry, and other shrubs that vary from location to location.

Minor -
Phase 1.2:
1. Grass-likes: sedges.
2. Native forbs: forbs present vary from location to location.
3. Shrubs: shrubs present vary from location to location

Minor -
Phase 1.3:
1. Native, perennial, warm-season, tall grass: big bluestem, switchgrass, eastern gamagrass.
2. Native forbs: forbs present vary from location to location.
3. Shrubs: shrubs present vary from location to location.
4. Native, deciduous trees: willow, elm, cottonwood, and other trees which vary from location to location.
5. Non-native, cool-season grass: Kentucky bluegrass, annual bromes, tall fescue, smooth brome.

Trace -
Phase 1.1:
1. Native, deciduous trees: elm, oak, green ash, eastern cottonwood, and other trees which vary from location to location.

Trace -
Phase 1.2:
1. Native, deciduous trees: willow, elm, cottonwood, and other trees which vary from location to location.
2. Non-native, cool-season grass: Kentucky bluegrass, annual bromes, tall fescue, smooth bromegrass.

Trace -
Phase 1.3:
1. Native coniferous trees: eastern red cedar.

Additional:
The Reference Community (1.1) includes eight F/S groups which are in order of abundance are native, perennial, warm-season, tall grass; native, perennial, warm-season, mid grass; native, perennial, cool-season grass; forbs; grass-likes; native, perennial, warm-season, short grass; shrubs; native, deciduous trees.

The Degraded Native Grass Community (1.2) includes nine F/S groups which are native, perennial, warm-season, mid grass; native, perennial, cool-season grass; native, perennial, warm-season, tall grass; perennial, warm-season, short grass; grass-likes; native forbs; shrubs; native, deciduous trees; non-native, cool-season grass.

The At-Risk Community (1.3) contains ten F/S groups. These groups include native, perennial, warm-season, short grass; native, perennial, cool-season grass; native, perennial, warm-season, mid grass; grass-likes; native, perennial, warm-season, tall grass; native forbs; native, deciduous trees; shrubs; non-native, cool-season grass; native, coniferous trees.
Amount of plant mortality and decadence (include which functional groups are expected to show mortality or decadence):
Recruitment of plants is occurring; there is a diverse mixture of age classes among the plants. A few (less than 3 percent) dead centers may occur in bunchgrasses. Shrubs and trees may show some dead branches (less than 5 percent) as plants age. Plant mortality may increase to 10 to 15 percent following a multi-year drought, wildfire, or a combination of the two events.
Average percent litter cover (%) and depth ( in):
Plant litter is expected to be 70 to 80 percent cover, at a depth of approximately 0.5 inch (1.25 cm) and evenly distributed throughout the site. Kentucky bluegrass, smooth brome, and reed canary grass are known to produce excessive litter accumulations that negatively impact site functionality.
Expected annual annual-production (this is TOTAL above-ground annual-production, not just forage annual-production):
North:
Representative Value (RV) = 4,000 pounds per acre.
Low production years = 3,500 pounds per acre.
High production years = 4,500 pounds per acre.

South:
Representative Value (RV) = 8,000 pounds per acre.
Low production years = 7,000 pounds per acre.
High production years =9,000 pounds per acre
Potential invasive (including noxious) species (native and non-native). List species which BOTH characterize degraded states and have the potential to become a dominant or co-dominant species on the ecological site if their future establishment and growth is not actively controlled by management interventions. Species that become dominant for only one to several years (e.g., short-term response to drought or wildfire) are not invasive plants. Note that unlike other indicators, we are describing what is NOT expected in the reference state for the ecological site:
No non-native, invasive species are present. Kentucky bluegrass, smooth brome, reed canary grass, Caucasian bluestem, tall fescue, eastern red cedar, honey locust, rough leaf dogwood, Siberian elm, Osage-orange, leafy spurge, and sericea lespedeza are known invasives that have the potential to be dominant or co-dominant on the site. Consult the state noxious weed and state watch lists for potential invasive species on each ecological site.
NOTE: Invasive plants (for the purposes of the IIRH protocol) are plant species that are typically not found on the ecological site or should only be in trace or minor categories under the natural disturbance regime and have the potential to become a dominant or co-dominant species on the site if their establishment and growth are not actively controlled by natural disturbances or management interventions. Species listed characterize degraded states AND have the potential to become a dominant or co-dominant species.
Perennial plant reproductive capability:
Perennial species exhibit high vigor relative to climatic conditions. Perennial grasses should have vigorous rhizomes or tillers; vegetative and reproductive structures are not stunted. All perennial species should be capable of reproducing annually.

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Ecosystem states

1. Reference State

2. Native/Invaded Grass State

3. Sod-busted State

4. Invaded Woody State

T1A	-	Heavy grazing or haying with inadequate recovery periods.
T1B	-	Tillage to facilitate production agriculture.
T1C	-	Woody encroachment and absence of fire and brush management.
T 2A	-	Tillage to facilitate production agriculture.
T 2B	-	Woody encroachment and absence of fire and brush management.
T 3A	-	Woody encroachment and absence of fire and brush management.
R4A	-	Prescribed burning, wildfire, harvest, and brush management.
R4B	-	Prescribed burning, wildfire, harvest, and brush management.
R4C	-	Prescribed burning, wildfire, harvest, and brush management.

State 1 submodel, plant communities

1.1. Reference Community

1.2. Degraded Native Grass Community

1.3. At-Risk Community

1.4. Excessive Litter Community

1.1A	-	Grazing or haying with inadequate growing season recovery periods
1.1B	-	Prolonged absence (> 5 years) of grazing and fire.
1.2A	-	Prescribed grazing during the cool-season portion of the growing season.
1.2B	-	Continuation of grazing or haying with inadequate growing season recovery periods.
1.2C	-	Prolonged (> 5 years) absence of herbivory and fire.
1.3A	-	Prescribed, targeted grazing during the cool-season portion of growing season.
1.3B	-	Prolonged (> 5 years) absence of herbivory and fire.
1.4A	-	Reintroduction of grazing and fire.
1.4B	-	Reintroduction of grazing and fire.
1.4C	-	Reintroduction of grazing and fire.