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Ecological site R106XY070NE

Loamy Terrace

Last updated: 6/09/2025
Accessed: 12/05/2025

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General information

Provisional. A provisional ecological site description has undergone quality control and quality assurance review. It contains a working state and transition model and enough information to identify the ecological site.

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Figure 1. Mapped extent

Areas shown in blue indicate the maximum mapped extent of this ecological site. Other ecological sites likely occur within the highlighted areas. It is also possible for this ecological site to occur outside of highlighted areas if detailed soil survey has not been completed or recently updated.

MLRA notes

Major Land Resource Area (MLRA): 106X–Nebraska and Kansas Loess-Drift Hills

Named the “Nebraska and Kansas Loess-Drift Hills,” Major Land Resource Area (MLRA) 106 is divided almost evenly between southeastern Nebraska (52%), and northeastern Kansas, (48%). The approximately seven-million-acre landscape covers all or parts of thirty counties between the two states. The northern border is located on the north end of Saunders County, Nebraska, and the MLRA extends into Douglas County, Kansas in the south. The Nebraska cities of Beatrice and Lincoln are the major population centers in the north, while Topeka and Lawrence in Kansas are the primary cities in the south. The Platte, Little Nemaha, and the North Fork of the Big Nemaha Rivers flow through the Nebraska side of the MLRA, while the Black Vermillion, the Soldier, and the Delaware Rivers are the major waterways on the Kansas side. The Big Blue River runs through both states, while the Salt Creek hydrologic system located near Lincoln, Nebraska provides habitat for the only known population of the Federally listed endangered Salt Creek Tiger Beetle.

This dissected glacial drift plain primarily consists of broad, smooth ridgetops, and slopes ranging from nearly level to steep. The elevation in MLRA 106 decreases from west to east, and ranges from nearly 1,650 feet to less than 790 feet above sea level. Stream valleys in this landscape are narrow and bordered by steep hills, with 10 to 20 feet of local relief. The river valleys are broader and may drop up to over 160 feet below the adjacent hilltops. The uplands are primarily comprised of glacial drift underlying a mantle of loess, while alluvial deposits are found in the stream and river valleys. Limestone and shale quarries are also located in MLRA 106. The predominant soil orders in this MLRA are mesic, udic, Mollisols, Alfisols, and Entisols. Loams and clays are the primary soil textures in this landscape.

Sixty-two percent of the land in this MLRA has been broken out of native prairie and farmed, while only 23 percent of the grasslands remain. Livestock grazing, primarily by cattle, is the main industry on these remnants. Corn, wheat, soybeans, and grain sorghum are the primary commodity crops, but a significant number of acres are also planted to alfalfa for harvest as hay. With annual precipitation averaging from 40 inches in the southeast, to 28 inches in the northwest, irrigation for crop production is not a critical factor in most years.

The historical matrix vegetation type is Tallgrass Prairie, and big and little bluestem, switchgrass, Indiangrass, sideoats, and blue grama make up the bulk of the warm-season species. Historically, western wheatgrass was the dominant cool-season grass but today the dominant cool-season grasses are introduced grasses, smooth brome in the north and tall fescue in the south. Large and small patch vegetative communities are found primarily along the riparian zones, and on both upland and lowland saline sites. Woodlands make up about six percent of MLRA 106, consisting primarily of green ash, oak, hackberry, boxelder, and maple trees.

Wildlife flourishes in this combination of crop and grassland environments. In a landscape historically occupied by bison herds, white-tailed deer are now the most abundant wild ungulates. A variety of smaller species, including coyote, raccoon, opossum, porcupines, muskrat, beaver, squirrel, and mink thrive in the region. Native grassland bird populations are limited by the lack of contiguous native prairie and the fragmented habitat created by the farmland. The rivers, streams, and lakes harbor excellent fisheries, and migrating and local waterfowl use the wetland complexes. These complexes provide ideal habitat for wading and shore bird species as well.

This landscape serves as a backdrop for a disturbance driven ecosystem, evolving under the influences of herbivory, fire, and variable climate. Historically, these processes created a heterogeneous mosaic of plant communities and structure heights across the region. Any given site in this landscape experienced fire every three to four years. Fires were caused by lightning strikes and also were set by Native Americans, who used fire for warfare, signaling, and to refresh the native grasses. The Indigenous inhabitants understood the value of fire as a tool and that the highly palatable growth following a fire provided excellent forage for their horses and attracted grazing game animals such as bison and elk.

Land use patterns by post European settlers have fragmented the native grasslands through conversion to cropland, transportation corridors, and other developments. This has significantly altered the natural fire regime allowing encroachment by native and introduced shrubs and trees into the native prairie remnants throughout the MLRA. Aggressive fire suppression policies have exacerbated this process to the point that shrub and tree encroachment is a major ecological threat in the majority of both native and reseeded grasslands. Introduction of eastern red cedar as a windbreak species further facilitates invasion by this species. While eastern red cedar is native to the landscape, the historic population in MLRA 106 was limited to isolated pockets in rugged river drainageways that were protected from fire. Widespread plantings of windbreaks with eastern red cedar as a primary component have provided a seed source for the aggressive woody plant. The ensuing encroachment into the native grasslands degrades the native wildlife habit and causes significant forage loss for domestic livestock. Since it is not a root-sprouter, eastern red cedar is very susceptible to fire when under six feet tall. Management with prescribed fire is exceedingly effective if applied before this stage. Larger eastern red cedars can also be controlled with fire, but successful application requires the use of specifically designed ignition and holding techniques.

Classification relationships

►USDA-NRCS (2022)◄
Land Resource Region – M, Central Feed Grains and Livestock Region
Major Land Resource Area (MLRA) – 106

►Fenneman (1916) Physiographic Regions ◄
Division – Interior Plains
Province – Central Lowland
Section – Dissected Till Plains

►USDA-USFS (2007) Ecoregions◄
Domain – Humid Temperate
Division – Prairie
Province – Prairie Parkland (Temperate)
Section – Central Dissected Till Plains (251C)

►EPA Ecoregions (Omernik 1997)◄
I – Great Plains (9)
II – Temperate Prairies (9.2)
III – Western Corn Belt Plains (9.2.3)
IV – Loess and Glacial Drift Hills (47i)

►Associated Counties◄
Nebraska: Butler, Cass, Gage, Jefferson, Johnson, Lancaster, Nemaha, Otoe, Pawnee, Richardson, Saline, Saunders, Seward

Kansas: Atchison, Brown, Doniphan, Douglas, Franklin, Jackson, Jefferson, Johnson, Leavenworth, Marshall, Nemaha, Osage, Pottawatomie, Shawnee, Wabaunsee, Washington, Wyandotte

Ecological site concept

The Loamy Terrace ecological site is primarily found on elevated terrace positions just above the floodplain in river valleys. The site receives additional moisture from runoff originating from higher on the landscape. Flooding may occur at very rare to rare intervals. Slopes typically range from 0 to 2 percent but may be up to 12 percent. Soils are very deep (60 inches or more) with surface textures of silt loam or silty clay loam that are 12 to 20 inches thick or thicker. These somewhat moderately well to well drained soils are formed in alluvium. The vegetation of the Reference State is dominated by warm-season tall grasses. Big bluestem, Indiangrass, eastern gamagrass, prairie cordgrass, and switchgrass are the primary species. The majority of these sites have been farmed.

Associated sites

R106XY032NE	Subirrigated The Subirrigated ecological site is often located adjacent to the Loamy Terrace ecological site.
R106XY074NE	Clayey Upland The Clayey Upland ecological site is often located adjacent to but in higher landscape position than the Loamy Terrace ecological site.
R106XY075NE	Loamy Upland The Loamy Upland ecological site is often located adjacent to but in higher landscape position than the Loamy Terrace ecological site.

R106XY032NE

Subirrigated

The Subirrigated ecological site is often located adjacent to the Loamy Terrace ecological site.

R106XY074NE

Clayey Upland

The Clayey Upland ecological site is often located adjacent to but in higher landscape position than the Loamy Terrace ecological site.

R106XY075NE

Loamy Upland

The Loamy Upland ecological site is often located adjacent to but in higher landscape position than the Loamy Terrace ecological site.

Similar sites

R106XY068NE	Loamy Floodplain The Loamy Floodplain and Loamy Terrace ecological sites occur on similar soils but the Loamy Floodplain ecological site is subject to occasional flooding while the Loamy Terrace ecological site is not.
R106XY032KS	Subirrigated (PE 30-37) The Subirrigated ecological site has a higher water table than the Loamy Terrace ecological site and a higher percentage of species that are tolerant of moist soils in the vegetative community.

R106XY068NE

Loamy Floodplain

The Loamy Floodplain and Loamy Terrace ecological sites occur on similar soils but the Loamy Floodplain ecological site is subject to occasional flooding while the Loamy Terrace ecological site is not.

R106XY032KS

Subirrigated (PE 30-37)

The Subirrigated ecological site has a higher water table than the Loamy Terrace ecological site and a higher percentage of species that are tolerant of moist soils in the vegetative community.

Table 1. Dominant plant species

Tree	(1) Ulmus (2) Quercus
Shrub	(1) Rhus glabra (2) Ceanothus cuneatus
Herbaceous	(1) Andropogon gerardii (2) Sorghastrum nutans

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Physiographic features

The Loamy Terrace ecological site is located on elevated terrace positions along river valleys. This site is a run on site that typically receives water from the upland sites.

Figure 2. Block Diagram

Table 2. Representative physiographic features

Landforms	(1) Valley > Stream terrace (2) River valley > Terrace
Runoff class	Low
Flooding frequency	Very rare to rare
Ponding frequency	None
Elevation	730 – 1,000 ft
Slope	12%
Water table depth	36 – 72 in
Aspect	Aspect is not a significant factor

Climatic features

Like most Great Plains landscapes, the climate in this MLRA is under the sway of the continental effect. This creates a regime of extremes, with summer highs often in the triple digits and winter lows plunging well below zero. Blizzards can occur anytime between early fall and late spring, dropping the temperature more than 50 degrees in just a few hours. These events can pile up several feet of snow, often driven by winds in excess of 50 miles an hour. The resulting huge snow drifts can cause serious hardship for livestock, wildlife, and humans. Winters can be open, with bare ground for most of the season, or closed, with several feet of snow persisting until March. Most winters have a number of warm days interspersed with dropping temperatures, usually associated with approaching cold fronts. Spring brings violent thunderstorms, hail, and high winds. Tornadoes occur frequently.

About three-fourths of the precipitation falls as high intensity, convective thunderstorms from late spring through early autumn. The average annual precipitation gradient trends higher from northwest (28”) to southeast (40”), and the average annual temperature gradient trends higher from north (50°F) to south (55°F). Daily winds range from an average of 14 miles per hour during the spring to 11 miles per hour during the late summer. Occasional strong storms may bring brief periods of high winds with gusts to more than 80 miles per hour.

Native cool-season plants begin growth in early April and continue to about mid-June. Native warm-season plants begin growth in early June and continue to early August. Green-up of cool-season plants may occur in September and October.

Table 3. Representative climatic features

Frost-free period (characteristic range)	136-147 days
Freeze-free period (characteristic range)	161-188 days
Precipitation total (characteristic range)	31-38 in
Frost-free period (actual range)	129-156 days
Freeze-free period (actual range)	155-191 days
Precipitation total (actual range)	30-40 in
Frost-free period (average)	142 days
Freeze-free period (average)	173 days
Precipitation total (average)	34 in

Characteristic range

Actual range

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Figure 3. Monthly precipitation range

Characteristic range

Actual range

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Figure 4. Monthly minimum temperature range

Characteristic range

Actual range

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Figure 5. Monthly maximum temperature range

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Figure 6. Monthly average minimum and maximum temperature

Figure 7. Annual precipitation pattern

Figure 8. Annual average temperature pattern

Climate stations used

(1) CENTRALIA [USC00141408], Centralia, KS
(2) HIAWATHA 9 ESE [USC00143634], Robinson, KS
(3) LAWRENCE [USC00144559], Lawrence, KS
(4) OSKALOOSA 4 NE [USC00146100], Mc Louth, KS
(5) PERRY LAKE [USC00146333], Perry, KS
(6) AUBURN 5 ESE [USC00250435], Auburn, NE
(7) CRETE [USC00252020], Crete, NE
(8) SYRACUSE [USC00258395], Syracuse, NE
(9) WAHOO [USC00258905], Wahoo, NE
(10) BONNER SPRINGS [USC00140957], Bonner Springs, KS
(11) HOLTON [USC00143759], Holton, KS
(12) HORTON [USC00143810], Horton, KS
(13) ASHLAND NO 2 [USC00250375], Ashland, NE
(14) TECUMSEH 1S [USC00258465], Tecumseh, NE
(15) TOPEKA MUNI AP [USW00013996], Topeka, KS
(16) LINCOLN UNIV PWR PLT [USW00014971], Lincoln, NE
(17) PAWNEE CITY [USC00256570], Pawnee City, NE
(18) MARYSVILLE [USC00145063], Marysville, KS
(19) MEAD 6S [USC00255362], Ithaca, NE
(20) RAYMOND 2NE [USC00257055], Raymond, NE
(21) TABLE ROCK 4 N [USC00258410], Table Rock, NE
(22) VIRGINIA [USC00258875], Virginia, NE
(23) WEEPING WATER [USC00259090], Weeping Water, NE

Soil features

The soils associated with the Loamy Terrace ecological site are located on stream terraces. Slopes typically range from 0 to 2 percent but may be as much as 12 percent. These soils were formed in alluvium and colluvium. The soils are very deep (60 inches or greater) with silt loam or silty clay loam surface textures which are typically 12 to 20 inches thick. Soils are moderately well to well drained and receive additional moisture from runoff and rarely experience flooding. The soils associated with the site have moderately low to high saturated hydraulic conductivity.

The major soil series correlated to this ecological site include Eudora, Kenridge, and Reading. Other soil series correlated to the site are Belvue, Chase, Judson, Kennebec, and Rossville. Additional information can be found in the various soil survey reports. Contact the local USDA Service Center for soil survey reports that include more details specific to your location or visit Web Soil Survey (https://websoilsurvey.sc.egov.usda.gov).

Figure 9. Judson series

Table 4. Representative soil features

Parent material	(1) Alluvium (2) Colluvium
Surface texture	(1) Silt loam (2) Silty clay loam
Drainage class	Moderately well drained to well drained
Permeability class	Very slow to moderate
Soil depth	60 in
Surface fragment cover <=3"	Not specified
Surface fragment cover >3"	Not specified
Available water capacity (0-40in)	7 – 10.6 in
Calcium carbonate equivalent (0-40in)	2%
Electrical conductivity (0-40in)	2 mmhos/cm
Sodium adsorption ratio (0-40in)	Not specified
Soil reaction (1:1 water) (0-40in)	5 – 7.8
Subsurface fragment volume <=3" (0-40in)	Not specified
Subsurface fragment volume >3" (0-40in)	Not specified

Ecological dynamics

Loamy Terrace ecological sites developed under Central Great Plains climatic conditions, light to severe grazing by bison and other large herbivores, sporadic natural or man caused wildfire, and other biotic and abiotic factors that typically influence soil and site development. This continues to be a disturbance driven site, by herbivory, fire, and variable climate. Changes occur in the plant communities due to short term weather variations, impacts of native and exotic plant and animal species, and management actions. The landscape position and association with streams make this site somewhat less susceptible to fire, which allowed woody species to become more abundant than less sheltered sites in the MLRA.

One of the primary impacts to this site introduced by European settlement of North America is season long continuous grazing by domestic livestock. This management practice causes the repeated removal of the growing point and excessive defoliation of the leaf area of individual tall warm-season grasses. The resulting reduction of the plants ability to harvest sunlight depletes the root reserves, subsequently decreasing the root mass. This negatively impacts the ability of plants to compete for life sustaining nutrients, resulting in declining vigor, and eventual mortality. The space created in the vegetative community is then occupied by a species that avoids the negative grazing impacts by a growing season adaptation such as a cool-season, shorter structure, or reduced palatability mechanism.

The State and Transition Model (STM) is depicted below and includes a Reference State (1), a Native/Invaded Grass State (2), a Sod-busted State (3) and an Invaded Woody State (4). Each state represents the crossing of a major ecological threshold due to alteration of the functional dynamic properties of the ecosystem. The main properties observed to determine this change are the soil and vegetative communities, and the hydrological cycle.

Each state may have one or more vegetative communities that fluctuate in species composition and abundance within the normal parameters of the state. Within each state, communities may degrade or recover in response to natural and man caused disturbances such as variation in the degree and timing of herbivory, presence or absence of fire, and climatic and local fluctuations in the precipitation regime. Periodic flooding and deposition events can cause a wide variability in plant communities and production on this site.

Interpretations are primarily based on the Reference State and have been determined by study of rangeland relic areas, areas protected from excessive disturbance, and areas under long term rotational grazing regimes. Trends in plant community dynamics have been interpreted from heavily grazed to lightly grazed areas, seasonal use pastures, and historical accounts. Plant communities, states, transitional pathways, and thresholds have been determined through similar studies and experience.

State and transition model

More interactive model formats are also available. View Interactive Models
Click on state and transition labels to scroll to the respective text

Ecosystem states

1. Reference State

2. Native/Invaded Grass State

3. Sod-busted State

4. Invaded Woody State

T1A	-	Heavy, continuous grazing or rotational grazing or haying with inadequate growing season recovery periods.
T1B	-	Tillage to facilitate production agriculture.
T1C	-	Woody encroachment and no fire or woody species management.
T2A	-	Tillage to facilitate production agriculture.
T2B	-	Woody encroachment and no fire or woody species management.
T3A	-	Woody encroachment and no fire or woody species management.
R4A	-	Prescribed burning, wildfire, harvest, and brush management.
R4B	-	Prescribed burning, wildfire, harvest, and brush management
R4C	-	Prescribed burning, wildfire, harvest, and brush management.

State 1 submodel, plant communities

1.1. Reference Community

1.2. Degraded Native Grass Community

1.3. At-Risk Community

1.4. Excessive Litter Community

1.1A	-	Continuous season-long grazing or rotational grazing with inadequate growing season recovery periods.
1.1B	-	Prolonged (> 5 years) absence of herbivory and fire.
1.2A	-	Prescribed grazing with adequate, growing season recovery (deferment) time.
1.2B	-	Prolonged continuous, season long grazing or rotational grazing or haying with inadequate, growing season recovery.
1.2C	-	Prolonged (> 5 years) absence of herbivory and fire.
1.3A	-	Prescribed grazing with rest during the rapid growth period of warm-season, tall and mid grasses.
1.3B	-	Prolonged (>5 years) absence of herbivory and fire.
1.4A	-	Reintroduction of herbivory and fire.
1.4B	-	Reintroduction of herbivory and fire.
1.4C	-	Reintroduction of herbivory and fire.

State 2 submodel, plant communities

2.1. Shortgrass Sod/Invaded Grass Community

2.2. Invaded Cool-Season Community

2.1A	-	Excessive warm season grazing, inadequate recovery, multi season haying and nitrogen fertilization in the spring or fall.
2.2A	-	Herbicide treatment and seeding; limit grazing to rapid growth period of cool-season grasses.

State 3 submodel, plant communities

3.1. Reseeded Native Grass Community

3.2. Seeded Pasture Community

3.3. Natural Reclamation Community

State 4 submodel, plant communities

4.1. Invasive Woody Community

State 1
Reference State

The Reference State describes the range of vegetative community phases that occur on the Loamy Terrace ecological site where the natural processes are mostly intact. The Reference Community (1.1) is a representation of the native plant community phase that occupies a site that has been minimally altered by management. The Degraded Native Grass (1.2), the At-Risk (1.3), and the Excessive Litter (1.4) Communities are the phases that result from management decisions that are unfavorable for a healthy Reference Community. High perennial grass cover and production allows for increased soil moisture retention, vegetative production, and overall soil quality.

Dominant plant species

green ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica), tree
eastern cottonwood (Populus deltoides), tree
oak (Quercus), tree
elm (Ulmus), tree
big bluestem (Andropogon gerardii), grass
switchgrass (Panicum virgatum), grass
Indiangrass (Sorghastrum nutans), grass
little bluestem (Schizachyrium scoparium), grass
western wheatgrass (Pascopyrum smithii), grass

Community 1.1
Reference Community

Figure 10. Loamy Terrace ecological site, Reference Community (1.1) in eastern Kansas, MLRA 106.

The Reference or Native Tallgrass Prairie Community (1.1) serves as a description of the native plant community that naturally occurs on the site when the natural disturbance regimes are intact or closely mimicked by management practices. This phase is dynamic, with fluid relative abundance and spatial boundaries between the dominant structural vegetative groups. These fluctuations are primarily driven by different responses of the species to changes in precipitation timing and abundance, and fire and grazing events. The potential vegetation consists of approximately 80 to 90 percent grasses and grass-likes, 5 to10 percent forbs, 0 to 5 percent shrubs, and 0 to 2 percent trees. Big bluestem, Indiangrass, prairie cordgrass, and switchgrass are the primary species in this community. Eastern gamagrass is an important grass species in the southern portion of the MLRA. Secondary species include little bluestem, sedges, composite dropseed, sideoats grama, and western wheatgrass. The site has a diverse forb population. A deciduous woody population that includes elm, green ash, oak, and eastern cottonwood may be present. This plant community is highly productive, diverse, and resistant to short term stresses such as drought and short periods of heavy stocking. The well-developed root systems support resiliency when allowed adequate recovery periods between grazing events. When exposed to long term or frequent over grazing events without adequate rest, this plant community will degrade. The vegetative production varies significantly from the northern to southern portion of the MLRA. The representative value for production is 4,200 pounds per acre in the northern portion of the MLRA and 6,500 pounds per acre in the southern portion. Annual production ranges from a minimum of 3,000 pounds per acre in the north to a maximum of 10,000 lbs per acre in the south. The production and species data depicted in the associated species composition table are from the northern portion of the MLRA and should be interpreted accordingly.

Dominant plant species

eastern cottonwood (Populus deltoides), tree
green ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica), tree
oak (Quercus), tree
elm (Ulmus), tree
leadplant (Amorpha canescens), shrub
Jersey tea (Ceanothus herbaceus), shrub
prairie rose (Rosa arkansana), shrub
big bluestem (Andropogon gerardii), grass
switchgrass (Panicum virgatum), grass
Indiangrass (Sorghastrum nutans), grass
little bluestem (Schizachyrium scoparium), grass
eastern gamagrass (Tripsacum dactyloides), grass
Illinois ticktrefoil (Desmodium illinoense), other herbaceous
Illinois bundleflower (Desmanthus illinoensis), other herbaceous
stiff sunflower (Helianthus pauciflorus), other herbaceous
roundhead lespedeza (Lespedeza capitata), other herbaceous
cobaea beardtongue (Penstemon cobaea), other herbaceous
compassplant (Silphium laciniatum), other herbaceous

Figure 11. Annual production by plant type (representative values) or group (midpoint values)

Table 5. Annual production by plant type

Plant type	Low (lb/acre)	Representative value (lb/acre)	High (lb/acre)
Grass/Grasslike	2790	3638	7136
Forb	210	315	420
Shrub/Vine	0	205	210
Tree	0	42	84
Total	3000	4200	7850

Figure 12. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). NE1064, Nebraska and Kansas Loess-Drift Hills. Warm season dominant with occasional overflow.

Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun	Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec
J	F	M	A	M	J	J	A	S	O	N	D
0	1	4	10	25	30	14	8	5	2	1	0

Community 1.2
Degraded Native Grass Community

Figure 13. Degraded Native Grass Community on the Loamy Terrace site in eastern Kansas, MLRA 106.

Big bluestem, switchgrass, Indiangrass, eastern gamagrass, and other desirable species lose productive capacity through loss of vigor and reproductive potential. Forb diversity is reduced. Maximillian sunflower, rosinweed, and compassplant numbers decline. Ragweed and other less palatable species increase. Leadplant declines while western snowberry and smooth sumac patches begin to increase. Warm-season mid grasses such as little bluestem, purple lovegrass, dropseeds, and sideoats grama are dominant. Cool-season grasses and grass-likes such as western wheatgrass and various sedges have increased. Kentucky bluegrass and other non-native, cool-season grasses may be present in trace amounts. This community phase signals a significant loss of production and develops with continuous season long grazing or rotational grazing with inadequate recovery periods. It can also occur when hayed with inadequate recovery time between cuttings. Grazing tolerant warm-season and cool-season grasses increase. The composition of the forb component remains diverse. The potential for encroachment by invasive woody species becomes more likely, due to the reduction in deep rooted species and a reduced fuel load to carry fire. While this plant community is less productive and less diverse than the representative plant community, it remains sustainable in regard to site and soil stability, hydrologic function, and biotic integrity. The average annual vegetative production in the northern portion of the MLRA is 3,200 lbs/acre.

Dominant plant species

eastern cottonwood (Populus deltoides), tree
green ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica), tree
oak (Quercus), tree
elm (Ulmus), tree
western snowberry (Symphoricarpos occidentalis), shrub
smooth sumac (Rhus glabra), shrub
coralberry (Symphoricarpos orbiculatus), shrub
little bluestem (Schizachyrium scoparium), grass
sideoats grama (Bouteloua curtipendula), grass
prairie dropseed (Sporobolus heterolepis), grass
composite dropseed (Sporobolus compositus), grass
Cuman ragweed (Ambrosia psilostachya), other herbaceous
Missouri goldenrod (Solidago missouriensis), other herbaceous

Community 1.3
At-Risk Community

Figure 14. Loamy Terrace ecological site, At-Risk Community, southeast Kansas, MLRA 106.

In the At-Risk Community (1.3), the more palatable warm-season tall grasses have been reduced to a minor component of the plant community due to continued defoliation during their critical growth periods. Warm-season mid and short grasses and cool-season grasses increase significantly. The dominant grasses include dropseeds, sideoats grama, blue grama, western wheatgrass, and other native cool-season grasses. Kentucky bluegrass, smooth brome, or tall fescue have a significant presence but have not reached subdominant status. Annuals may be present, often in abundance. Palatable forbs have been reduced, and the dominant forbs are unpalatable species such as goldenrod, ironweed, and heath aster. The woody component of the plant community may begin to increase. Soil health is affected by reduced efficiency in the nutrient, mineral, and hydrologic cycles as a result of decreases in plant litter and rooting depths. Total annual vegetative production declines significantly. Without a management change, this community is at risk to transition to the Native/Invaded Grass State (2).

Dominant plant species

oak (Quercus), tree
elm (Ulmus), tree
eastern cottonwood (Populus deltoides), tree
green ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica), tree
smooth sumac (Rhus glabra), shrub
western snowberry (Symphoricarpos occidentalis), shrub
prairie dropseed (Sporobolus heterolepis), grass
composite dropseed (Sporobolus compositus), grass
western wheatgrass (Pascopyrum smithii), grass
blue grama (Bouteloua gracilis), grass
goldenrod (Solidago), other herbaceous
ironweed (Vernonia), other herbaceous
white heath aster (Symphyotrichum ericoides), other herbaceous

Figure 15. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). NE1069, MLRA 106 Warm/cool-season mix.

Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun	Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec
J	F	M	A	M	J	J	A	S	O	N	D
0	1	4	10	23	26	17	8	6	4	1	0

Community 1.4
Excessive Litter Community

The Excessive Litter Community (1.4) develops when the natural disturbances of herbivory and fire are removed from the system. Litter significantly exceeds the amount expected on the site and the species present can tolerate a thatch layer. Individual plants tend to be clumped and there is an excessive amount of litter. Species that cannot tolerate an extensive litter layer have low vigor and reduced productivity. Once the undisturbed litter layer develops to a certain level, a significant amount of precipitation is held in this layer, increasing evaporation, limiting soil available moisture, and simulating drought conditions. If the herbivory or fire are not reintroduced, the plant community will experience a significant amount of death loss.

Dominant plant species

eastern cottonwood (Populus deltoides), tree
smooth sumac (Rhus glabra), shrub
little bluestem (Schizachyrium scoparium), grass
western wheatgrass (Pascopyrum smithii), grass
big bluestem (Andropogon gerardii), grass

Pathway 1.1A
Community 1.1 to 1.2

Reference Community

Degraded Native Grass Community

A shift from the Reference Community (1.1) to the Degraded Native Grass Community (1.2) occurs with continuous season long grazing or rotational grazing with inadequate growing season recovery periods. This shift will also occur with haying without adequate recovery time between cuttings.

Pathway 1.1B
Community 1.1 to 1.4

Prolonged interruption (greater than 5 years) of the natural disturbances of herbivory and fire will convert the Reference Community (1.1) to the Excessive Litter Community (1.4).

Pathway 1.2A
Community 1.2 to 1.1

Degraded Native Grass Community

Reference Community

A shift from the Degraded Native Grass Community (1.2) toward the Reference Community (1.1) can be achieved through implementation of prescribed grazing which includes appropriate stocking rates and adequate, growing season recovery time (deferment). This grazing strategy will enable the more deeply rooted warm-season tall grasses to recover and regain their productive capacity. Appropriately timed prescribed fire will accelerate this process.

Conservation practices

Prescribed Burning
Prescribed Grazing

Pathway 1.2B
Community 1.2 to 1.3

Degraded Native Grass Community

At-Risk Community

Prolonged continuous, season long grazing or rotational grazing or haying with inadequate recovery periods (deferment) during the growing season moves the Degraded Native Grass Community (1.2) to the At-Risk Community (1.3).

Pathway 1.2C
Community 1.2 to 1.4

Prolonged interruption (greater than 5 years) of the natural disturbances of herbivory and fire will convert the Degraded Native Grass Community (1.2) to the Excessive Litter Community (1.4).

Pathway 1.3A
Community 1.3 to 1.2

At-Risk Community

Degraded Native Grass Community

Reversing the downward trend and moving the At-Risk Community (1.3) to the Degraded Native Grass Community (1.2) can be achieved by implementing prescribed grazing which includes targeted grazing early and late in the growing season to reduce cool-season grasses. Targeting the peak growth period of cool-season grasses with high intensity grazing events followed by rest during the primary growth period of warm-season grasses will allow the native, warm-season, tall and mid grasses to increase. Appropriately timed prescribed fire will accelerate this process.

Conservation practices

Prescribed Burning
Prescribed Grazing

Pathway 1.3B
Community 1.3 to 1.4

Prolonged interruption (greater than 5 years) of the natural disturbances of herbivory and fire will convert the At-Risk Community (1.3) to the Excessive Litter Community (1.4).

Pathway 1.4A
Community 1.4 to 1.1

Reintroduction of the natural processes of herbivory and fire will allow the vegetation of the Excessive Litter Community (1.4) to return to the Reference Community (1.1).

Conservation practices

Prescribed Burning
Prescribed Grazing

Pathway 1.4B
Community 1.4 to 1.2

Reintroduction of the natural processes of herbivory and fire will allow the vegetation of the Excessive Litter Community (1.4) to return to the Degraded Native Grass Community (1.2).

Conservation practices

Prescribed Burning
Prescribed Grazing

Pathway 1.4C
Community 1.4 to 1.3

Reintroduction of the natural processes of herbivory and fire will allow the vegetation of the Excessive Litter Community (1.4) to return to the At-Risk Community (1.3).

Conservation practices

Prescribed Burning
Prescribed Grazing

State 2
Native/Invaded Grass State

The Native/Invaded Grass State (2) has been degraded from the Reference State (1) and much of the native warm-season grass community has been replaced by less desirable plants. The loss of warm-season, tall and mid grasses has negatively impacted energy flow and nutrient cycling. Water infiltration is reduced due to the shallow root system and rapid runoff characteristics of the grazing tolerant plant communities. Alterations to the soil and the hydrological processes make return to reference state unlikely. This state includes two communities, the Shortgrass Sod/Invaded Grass (2.1) and the Invaded Cool-Season Grass (2.2) Communities.

Dominant plant species

elm (Ulmus), tree
eastern cottonwood (Populus deltoides), tree
green ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica), tree
oak (Quercus), tree
composite dropseed (Sporobolus compositus), grass
blue grama (Bouteloua gracilis), grass
smooth brome (Bromus inermis), grass
tall fescue (Schedonorus arundinaceus), grass
Cuman ragweed (Ambrosia psilostachya), other herbaceous
curlycup gumweed (Grindelia squarrosa), other herbaceous

Community 2.1
Shortgrass Sod/Invaded Grass Community

This plant community represents a shift from the Reference State (1) across a plant community threshold. With continued grazing pressure, warm-season short grasses such as blue grama and buffalograss become the dominant plant species and Kentucky bluegrass, smooth brome or tall fescue increase to subdominant or co-dominant levels. Trace remnants of the more palatable warm-season tall and mid grasses may be present. Annual brome grasses are often abundant in large patches. Forb richness and diversity has decreased. Forbs associated with this community include ironweed, ragweed, and heath aster. Leadplant is rare in this phase, while sumac patches continue to expand. Plant diversity is low. With the decline and loss of deeper penetrating root systems, a compacted layer may form in the soil profile below the shallower replacement root systems. Continuous and heavy grazing pressure will maintain this plant community in a sod bound condition. Grazing management practices that incorporate adequate periods of recovery between grazing events will allow the warm-season, tall and mid grasses to increase. Return to the Reference State (1) is unlikely due to the loss of plant diversity and overall soil disturbance.

Dominant plant species

eastern cottonwood (Populus deltoides ssp. deltoides), tree
eastern redcedar (Juniperus virginiana), tree
smooth sumac (Rhus glabra), shrub
blue grama (Bouteloua gracilis), grass
composite dropseed (Sporobolus compositus), grass
smooth brome (Bromus inermis), grass
tall fescue (Schedonorus arundinaceus), grass
hoary verbena (Verbena stricta), other herbaceous
ironweed (Vernonia), other herbaceous

Community 2.2
Invaded Cool-Season Community

Figure 16. Invaded Cool-season Community on the Loamy Terrace site in southeast Kansas, MLRA 106.

The Invaded Cool-Season Community (2.2) is dominated by smooth brome or tall fescue. Kentucky bluegrass and annual bromes may also be present. Some native, warm-season, tall and mid grass remnants may be present. Palatable forbs have been replaced by unpalatable species that can survive in brome or fescue sod. Palatable shrubs have been replaced by more unpalatable species. Production of this plant community is highly variable, depending upon the percentages of species present and outside inputs such as fertilizer and weed control.

Dominant plant species

eastern cottonwood (Populus deltoides), tree
smooth sumac (Rhus glabra), shrub
smooth brome (Bromus inermis), grass
tall fescue (Schedonorus arundinaceus), grass
false boneset (Brickellia eupatorioides), other herbaceous
hoary verbena (Verbena stricta), other herbaceous

Figure 17. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). NE1067, Nebraska and Kansas Loess Drift Hills. Invaded cool season dominant.

Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun	Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec
J	F	M	A	M	J	J	A	S	O	N	D
0	0	5	13	28	28	12	5	6	3	0	0

Pathway 2.1A
Community 2.1 to 2.2

The Shortgrass Sod/Invaded Grass Community (2.1) will be converted to the Invaded Cool-Season Community (2.2) through the following practices: Introduced grass seeding, excessive warm season grazing, inadequate warm season rest, multi season haying and nitrogen fertilizing in the spring or fall.

Pathway 2.2A
Community 2.2 to 2.1

The Invaded Cool-Season Community (2.2) can be returned to the Shortgrass Sod/Invaded Cool-Season Community (2.1) with herbicide treatment and reseeding. If adequate native remnants are present, appropriately timed prescribed fire and a follow-up prescribed grazing program with grazing limited to the rapid growth period of the invasive cool-season grasses may achieve the desired results.

Conservation practices

Prescribed Burning
Prescribed Grazing

State 3
Sod-busted State

The threshold to the Sod-busted State (3) is crossed as a result of mechanical disturbance to facilitate production agriculture. Extensive areas of this ecological site were plowed and converted to crop production by early European settlers and their subsequent generations. In addition to permanently altering the existing vegetative community, repeated tillage negatively impacted soil properties. Reductions in organic matter, mineral levels, soil structure, oxygen levels, and water holding capacity along with increased runoff and erosion as well as shifts in the populations of soil dwelling organisms were common on these sites. The extent of these changes depended upon the duration of cropping as well as crops grown and other management practices. If farming operations are suspended, the site can be abandoned or seeded to permanent vegetation. Seedings are either a tame pasture forage mixture, the Seeded Pasture Community (3.2), or a mixture of native grasses and forbs, the Reseeded Native Grass Community (3.1). Abandonment results in the Natural Reclamation Community (3.3). Permanent alterations of the soil, plant community, and the hydrologic cycle make restoration to the Reference State (1) extremely difficult, if not impossible.

Community 3.1
Reseeded Native Grass Community

The Reseeded Native Grass Community (3.1) does not contain native remnants, and varies considerably depending upon the seed mixture, the degree of soil erosion, the age of the stand, fertility management, and past grazing management. Prescribed grazing with adequate recovery periods will be required to maintain productivity and desirable species. Native range and grasslands seeded to native species are ecologically different and should be managed separately. Factors such as functional group, species, stand density, and improved varieties all impact the production level and palatability of the seedings. Species diversity is often limited, and when grazed in conjunction with native rangelands, uneven forage utilization may occur. Total annual production during an average year varies significantly depending upon precipitation, management, and grass species seeded.

Community 3.2
Seeded Pasture Community

The Seeded Pasture Community (3.2) does not contain native remnants and varies considerably depending upon the extent of soil erosion, the species seeded, the quality of the stand that was established, the age of the stand, and management of the stand since establishment. There are several factors that make seeded tame pasture a different grazing resource than native rangeland and land seeded to a native grass mixture. Factors such as species selected, stand density, improved varieties, and harvest efficiency all impact production levels and palatability. Species diversity on seeded tame pasture is often limited to a few species. When seeded pasture and native rangelands or seeded pasture and seeded rangeland are in the same grazing unit, uneven forage utilization will occur. Improve forage utilization and stand longevity by managing this community separately from native rangelands or land seeded to native grass species. Total annual production during an average year varies significantly depending on the level of management and species seeded. Improved varieties of warm-season or cool-season grasses are recommended for optimum forage production.

Community 3.3
Natural Reclamation Community

The Natural Reclamation Community (3.3) consists of annual and perennial weeds and less desirable grasses. These sites have been farmed and abandoned without being reseeded. Soil organic matter and carbon reserves are reduced, soil structure is changed, and a plow pan or compacted layer can form, which decreases water infiltration. Residual synthetic chemicals may remain from farming operations. In early successional stages, this community is not stable. The hazard of erosion is a concern. Total annual production during an average year varies significantly depending on the succession stage of the plant community and any management applied to the system.

State 4
Invaded Woody State

The Invaded Woody State (4) is the result of woody encroachment. Once the tree canopy cover reaches 15 percent with an average tree height exceeding five feet, the threshold is crossed. Woody species are encroaching due to lack of prescribed fire and other brush management practices. Typical ecological impacts are a loss of native grasses, degraded forage productivity, and reduced soil quality. This state consists of the Invaded Woody Community (4.1) Prescribed burning, wildfire, timber harvest and brush management will move this state toward a grass dominated state. If the Invaded Woody State (4) transitioned from the Native/Invaded Grass State (2) or the Sod-busted State (3), the land cannot be restored to the Reference State (1) as the native plant community, soils, and hydrologic function have been too severely impacted prior to the woody encroachment to allow restoration to the Reference State (1).

Dominant plant species

eastern cottonwood (Populus deltoides), tree
oak (Quercus), tree
elm (Ulmus), tree
eastern redcedar (Juniperus virginiana), tree
smooth sumac (Rhus glabra), shrub
western snowberry (Symphoricarpos occidentalis), shrub
prairie dropseed (Sporobolus heterolepis), grass
composite dropseed (Sporobolus compositus), grass
blue grama (Bouteloua gracilis), grass
Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis), grass

Community 4.1
Invasive Woody Community

The Invasive Woody Community (4.1) has at least 15 percent canopy cover consisting of trees generally 5 feet or taller. Sycamore, elm, ash, oak, and cottonwood are some of the deciduous invaders, while eastern red cedar is the primary evergreen encroacher. In the absence of fire and brush management, this ecological site is very susceptible to eastern red cedar seedling invasion, especially when adjacent to a seed source. Eastern red cedar can eventually dominate the site resulting in a closed canopy monoculture which drastically reduces forage production, and which has limited value for either livestock grazing or wildlife habitat. Due to fire suppression over many years, this plant community will develop extensive ladder fuels which can lead to a removal of most tree species with a wildfire. With properly managed intensive grazing, encroachment of deciduous trees will be minimal; however, this will not impact encroachment of conifer species. The herbaceous component decreases proportionately in relation to the percent canopy cover, with the reduction being greater under a conifer overstory. Eastern red cedar control can usually be accomplished with prescribed burning while the trees are six feet tall or less and fine fuel production is greater than 1,500 pounds per acres. Larger red cedars can also be controlled with prescribed burning, but successful application requires the use of specifically designed ignition and holding techniques (https://www.loesscanyonsburngroup.com). Re-sprouting brush must be chemically treated immediately after mechanical removal to achieve effective treatment. The forb component will initially increase following tree removal. To prevent return to a woody dominated community, ongoing brush management such as hand cutting, chemical spot treatments, or periodic prescribed burning is required. This plant community is resistant to change and resilient given normal disturbances. In higher canopy cover situations, the soil erosion will increase in relation to most of the plant communities from which this plant community originated. The water cycle is also significantly altered under higher canopy cover. Infiltration is reduced and runoff is typically increased because of a lack of herbaceous cover and the rooting structure provided by the herbaceous species. Total annual production during an average year varies significantly, depending on the production level prior to encroachment and the percentage of canopy cover.

Dominant plant species

American sycamore (Platanus occidentalis), tree
eastern cottonwood (Populus deltoides), tree
green ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica), tree
eastern redcedar (Juniperus virginiana), tree
elm (Ulmus), tree
oak (Quercus), tree
smooth sumac (Rhus glabra), shrub
western snowberry (Symphoricarpos occidentalis), shrub
blue grama (Bouteloua gracilis), grass
prairie dropseed (Sporobolus heterolepis), grass
composite dropseed (Sporobolus compositus), grass
Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis), grass

Transition T1A
State 1 to 2

Heavy, continuous grazing or rotational grazing or haying with inadequate growing season recovery periods (deferment) will cause the Reference State (1) to lose a significant proportion of tall and mid warm-season grass species and cross a threshold to the Native/Invaded Grass State (2). Water infiltration and other hydrologic functions will be reduced due to the root matting presence of sod forming grasses. With the decline and loss of deeper penetrating root systems, soil structure and biological integrity are degraded to the point that recovery is unlikely. Once this occurs, it is highly unlikely that grazing management alone will return the community to the Reference State (1).

Transition T1B
State 1 to 3

The Reference State (1) is significantly altered by mechanical tillage converting site to the Sod-busted State (3) to facilitate production agriculture. The disruption to the plant community, the soil and the hydrology of the system make restoration to a true reference state unlikely.

Transition T1C
State 1 to 4

Disruption of the natural fire regime and the encroachment of invasive exotic and native woody species can cause the Reference State (1) to shift to the Invaded Woody State (4).

Transition T2A
State 2 to 3

The state is significantly altered by mechanical tillage converting site to the Sod-busted State (3) to facilitate production agriculture. The disruption to the plant community, the soil, and the hydrology of the system make restoration to the Native/Invaded Grass State (2) unlikely.

Transition T2B
State 2 to 4

Disruption of the natural fire regime and the encroachment of invasive exotic and native woody species can cause the Native/Invaded Grass State (2) to shift to the Invaded Woody State (4).

Transition T3A
State 3 to 4

Disruption of the natural fire regime and the encroachment of invasive exotic and native woody species can cause the Sod-busted State (3) to shift to the Invaded Woody State (4).

Restoration pathway R4A
State 4 to 1

Prescribed burning, wildfire, harvest, and brush management will move the Invaded Woody State (4) toward the Reference State (1). The forb component of a site with heavy tree density or canopy cover may initially increase following tree removal through mechanical brush management treatments and prescribed fire. If re-sprouting brush is present, stumps must be chemically treated immediately after mechanical removal. Ongoing brush management such as hand cutting, chemical spot treatments, or periodic prescribed burning is required to prevent a return to the Invaded Woody State (4). Land that transitioned to the Invaded Woody State (4) from the Native/Invaded Grass State (2) or the Sod-busted State (3) cannot be restored to the Reference State (1) through removal of woody species.

Conservation practices

Brush Management
Prescribed Burning
Prescribed Grazing

Restoration pathway R4B
State 4 to 2

Prescribed burning, wildfire, harvest, and brush management will move Invaded Woody State (4) toward the Native/Invaded State (2). The forb component of a site with heavy tree density or canopy cover may initially increase following tree removal through mechanical brush management treatments and prescribed fire. If re-sprouting brush is present, stumps must be chemically treated immediately after mechanical removal. Ongoing brush management such as hand cutting, chemical spot treatments, or periodic prescribed burning is required to prevent a return to the Invaded Woody State (4). Land that transitioned to the Invaded Woody State (4) from the Native/Invaded Grass State (2) or the Sod-busted State (3) cannot be restored to the Reference State (1) through removal of woody species.

Conservation practices

Brush Management
Prescribed Burning
Prescribed Grazing

Restoration pathway R4C
State 4 to 3

Prescribed burning, wildfire, harvest, and brush management will move the Invaded Woody State (4) toward the Sod-busted State (3). The forb component of a site with heavy tree density or canopy cover may initially increase following tree removal through mechanical brush management treatments and prescribed fire. If re-sprouting brush is present, stumps must be chemically treated immediately after mechanical removal. Ongoing brush management such as hand cutting, chemical spot treatments, or periodic prescribed burning is required to prevent a return to the Invaded Woody State. Land that transitioned to the Invaded Woody State (4) from the Native/Invaded Grass State (2) or the Sod-busted State (3) cannot be restored to the Reference State (1) through removal of woody species.

Conservation practices

Brush Management
Prescribed Burning
Prescribed Grazing

Additional community tables

Table 6. Community 1.1 plant community composition

Group	Common name	Symbol	Scientific name	Annual production (lb/acre)	Foliar cover (%)
Grass/Grasslike
1	Native Warm-Season Tallgrass			1890–2940
	big bluestem	ANGE	Andropogon gerardii	630–2025	–
	Indiangrass	SONU2	Sorghastrum nutans	420–1260	–
	switchgrass	PAVI2	Panicum virgatum	0–630	–
	eastern gamagrass	TRDA3	Tripsacum dactyloides	0–420	–
	Grass, perennial	2GP	Grass, perennial	0–210	–
2	Native Warm-Season Midgrass			420–1470
	little bluestem	SCSC	Schizachyrium scoparium	420–1470	–
	sideoats grama	BOCU	Bouteloua curtipendula	0–210	–
	prairie dropseed	SPHE	Sporobolus heterolepis	0–210	–
	purple lovegrass	ERSP	Eragrostis spectabilis	0–210	–
	Grass, perennial	2GP	Grass, perennial	0–210	–
3	Native Cool-Season Grass			210–420
	western wheatgrass	PASM	Pascopyrum smithii	42–210	–
	Scribner's rosette grass	DIOLS	Dichanthelium oligosanthes var. scribnerianum	0–210	–
	Canada wildrye	ELCA4	Elymus canadensis	0–210	–
	Virginia wildrye	ELVI3	Elymus virginicus	0–210	–
	porcupinegrass	HESP11	Hesperostipa spartea	0–210	–
	prairie Junegrass	KOMA	Koeleria macrantha	0–210	–
	Grass, perennial	2GP	Grass, perennial	0–210	–
4	Native Warm-Season Shortgrass			42–210
	blue grama	BOGR2	Bouteloua gracilis	42–210	–
	Grass, perennial	2GP	Grass, perennial	0–210	–
5	Grass-like			0–210
	sedge	CAREX	Carex	0–210	–
Forb
6	Native Forb			210–420
	white sagebrush	ARLU	Artemisia ludoviciana	0–420	–
	Cuman ragweed	AMPS	Ambrosia psilostachya	0–420	–
	blue wild indigo	BAAUA	Baptisia australis var. australis	0–420	–
	wavyleaf thistle	CIUN	Cirsium undulatum	0–420	–
	white prairie clover	DACA7	Dalea candida	0–420	–
	purple prairie clover	DAPU5	Dalea purpurea	0–420	–
	button eryngo	ERYU	Eryngium yuccifolium	0–420	–
	Maximilian sunflower	HEMA2	Helianthus maximiliani	0–420	–
	ashy sunflower	HEMO2	Helianthus mollis	0–420	–
	stiff sunflower	HEPA19	Helianthus pauciflorus	0–420	–
	roundhead lespedeza	LECA8	Lespedeza capitata	0–420	–
	tall blazing star	LIAS	Liatris aspera	0–420	–
	dotted blazing star	LIPU	Liatris punctata	0–420	–
	slimflower scurfpea	PSTE5	Psoralidium tenuiflorum	0–420	–
	fringeleaf wild petunia	RUHU	Ruellia humilis	0–420	–
	pitcher sage	SAAZG	Salvia azurea var. grandiflora	0–420	–
	compassplant	SILA3	Silphium laciniatum	0–420	–
	Missouri goldenrod	SOMI2	Solidago missouriensis	0–420	–
	Baldwin's ironweed	VEBA	Vernonia baldwinii	0–420	–
	Illinois bundleflower	DEIL	Desmanthus illinoensis	0–420	–
	Illinois ticktrefoil	DEIL2	Desmodium illinoense	0–420	–
	cobaea beardtongue	PECO4	Penstemon cobaea	0–400	–
	bluejacket	TROH	Tradescantia ohiensis	0–210	–
	groundplum milkvetch	ASCR2	Astragalus crassicarpus	0–210	–
	Forb, native	2FN	Forb, native	0–210	–
	butterfly milkweed	ASTU	Asclepias tuberosa	0–84	–
	whorled milkweed	ASVE	Asclepias verticillata	0–84	–
	green antelopehorn	ASVI2	Asclepias viridis	0–84	–
	common yarrow	ACMI2	Achillea millefolium	0–84	–
	Carolina larkspur	DECAV2	Delphinium carolinianum ssp. virescens	0–84	–
	white wild indigo	BAAL	Baptisia alba	0–84	–
	false boneset	BREU	Brickellia eupatorioides	0–84	–
	Carolina anemone	ANCA9	Anemone caroliniana	0–84	–
	Indianhemp	APCA	Apocynum cannabinum	0–84	–
	swamp verbena	VEHA2	Verbena hastata	0–84	–
	hoary verbena	VEST	Verbena stricta	0–84	–
	upright prairie coneflower	RACO3	Ratibida columnifera	0–84	–
	pinnate prairie coneflower	RAPI	Ratibida pinnata	0–84	–
	blackeyed Susan	RUHI2	Rudbeckia hirta	0–84	–
	blacksamson echinacea	ECAN2	Echinacea angustifolia	0–84	–
Shrub/Vine
7	Native Shrub			0–210
	leadplant	AMCA6	Amorpha canescens	42–210	–
	Jersey tea	CEHE	Ceanothus herbaceus	42–210	–
	smooth sumac	RHGL	Rhus glabra	0–210	–
	prairie rose	ROAR3	Rosa arkansana	42–210	–
	western snowberry	SYOC	Symphoricarpos occidentalis	0–210	–
	coralberry	SYOR	Symphoricarpos orbiculatus	42–210	–
	Shrub (>.5m)	2SHRUB	Shrub (>.5m)	0–210	–
Tree
8	Native Tree			0–84
	Tree	2TREE	Tree	0–42	–
	eastern cottonwood	PODE3	Populus deltoides	0–42	–
	green ash	FRPE	Fraxinus pennsylvanica	0–42	–
	elm	ULMUS	Ulmus	0–42	–
	oak	QUERC	Quercus	0–42	–

Interpretations

Animal community

LIVESTOCK – GRAZING INTERPRETATIONS:
Grazing by domestic livestock is one of the major income producing industries in the area. Rangeland in this area may provide yearlong forage for cattle, sheep, or horses. During the dormant period, the protein levels of the forage may be lower than the minimum needed to meet livestock (primarily cattle and sheep) requirements. The following table lists suggested stocking rates for cattle under continuous season long grazing under normal growing conditions. These are conservative estimates that should be used only as guidelines in the initial stages of the conservation planning process. Often, the current plant composition does not entirely match any particular plant community (as described in this ecological site description). Because of this, a field visit is recommended, in all cases, to document plant composition and production. More precise carrying capacity estimates should eventually be calculated using this information along with animal preference data, particularly when grazers other than cattle are involved. With consultation of the land manager, more intensive grazing management may result in improved harvest efficiencies and increased carrying capacity.

Production and Carrying Capacity*
Community 1.1, Reference Community: 4,200 lbs/acre, 1.15 AUM/acre

*Based upon the following conditions: continuous season long grazing with cattle under average growing conditions, 25 percent harvest efficiency. Air dry forage requirements are based on 3 percent of animal body weight or 790 lbs per animal unit (AU) per month (M). An AU is generally one mature cow of approximately 1,000 pounds and a calf as old as 6 months or their equivalent.

WILDLIFE INTERPRETATIONS:
Major Land Resource Area (MLRA) 106 lies primarily within the tall grass prairie ecosystem. Prior to European settlement of North America, this area consisted of diverse grassland habitats interspersed with varying densities of depressional wetlands and limited woody riparian corridors. These habitats provided critical life cycle components for the grassland birds, prairie dogs, and herds of roaming bison, elk, and pronghorn that historically occupied this landscape. Diverse populations of small mammals and insects provided a bountiful prey base for raptors and omnivores such as coyotes, foxes, raccoons, and opossums. Bobcats, wolves, and mountain lions occupied the apex predator niche. In addition, a wide variety of reptiles and amphibians thrived in this landscape.

The tall grass prairie was a disturbance driven ecosystem with fire, herbivory, and climate functioning as the primary disturbances. Following European settlement of North America, elimination of fire, widespread conversion to cropland, and other sources of habitat fragmentation significantly altered the appearance and functionality of the entire ecosystem. The reduced stability of the system is reflected by major changes in the composition and abundance of the native flora and fauna. Introduced and invading species further degrade the ecological integrity of the plant and animal communities. Bison and prairie dogs were historically keystone species, but free-roaming bison herds and nearly all prairie dogs have been extirpated in this region. The loss of bison and fire as ecological drivers greatly influenced the character of the remaining native grasslands and the habitats they provide.

Historically, an ecological mosaic of the sites provided habitat for species requiring unfragmented grasslands. Important habitat features and components found commonly or exclusively on modern day remnants include upland nesting habitat for grassland birds and game birds; nesting and escape cover for waterfowl; forbs and insects for brood rearing habitat; and a forage source for small and large herbivores. Fragmentation has reduced habitat quality for numerous area sensitive species, as highlighted by the decline of the greater prairie chicken. Grassland nesting bird populations such as dickcissel and Henslow's sparrow are also declining. In this fragmented landscape, native grassland bird populations face increasing competition from the opportunistic European starlings and house sparrows and are subject to nest parasitism from brown headed cowbirds. Tree encroachment creates habitat that favors generalist species such as American robin and mourning dove, and provides perches for raptors, increasing the predation mortality. Introduced species such as smooth bromegrass, reed canarygrass, Kentucky bluegrass, nodding plumeless thistle (musk thistle), and Canada thistle further degrade the biological integrity of many of these remnant prairies.

1. REFERENCE STATE: The predominance of tall grasses and forbs in this community makes it ideal for grazers and mixed feeders. Pollinating insects play a significant role in maintaining the forb community and provide a food source for grassland birds and other grassland dependent species. The vegetative structural diversity provides habitat for reptiles, amphibians, and a wide array of native and introduced bird species. The abundant prey base supports populations of Swainson’s hawk, short eared, and great horned owls, and other grassland raptors. The grasses, forbs, and shrubs provide high nutrition levels for small and large herbivores including moles, mice, ground squirrels, and white-tailed deer. The structure of this plant community provides suitable thermal, protective, and escape cover for small herbivores and grassland birds. Many wide-ranging predators utilize this plant community, including coyote, badger, red fox, and least and long tailed weasels. As the plant community degrades to more mid grasses and fewer tall grasses, less winter and escape cover are provided.

Hydrological functions

The majority of these very deep soils are moderately well to well drained, with some instances of somewhat poorly drained. The soils correlated to the Loamy Terrace ecological site place it in classes A, C, and D of the hydrological rating scale. The proximity of groundwater to the rooting zone of the deeply rooted tall grasses during the growing season provides an abundance of water for the tall grass component of the vegetative community, and vegetative production can be very high.

Recreational uses

The Loamy Terrace ecological site provides hunting for upland game species and white-tailed deer, along with hiking, photography, and bird watching. The wide varieties of plants which bloom from spring until fall have an aesthetic value that appeals to visitors.

Wood products

In MLRA 106, the Loamy Terrace ecological sites often have scattered populations of deciduous trees. These stands can provide firewood, select hardwood finishing lumber, and in some cases, cottonwoods can be used to make pallets. In the Invaded Woody State, eastern red cedar may provide posts and cedar boards from the larger trees.

Other products

None of significance.

Other information

Site Development and Testing Plan:
Additional data collection and evaluation will be needed to develop this ESD to the Correlated level. This could include field activities to collect low, medium, and high intensity sampling, soil correlations, and analysis of that data. Field reviews of the project plan should be done by soil scientists and vegetation specialists.

Supporting information

Inventory data references

Information presented here has been derived from new and historic data collection and field observations from range trained personnel.

Other references

Harms, R. 2009. Recovery Outline for the Salt Creek tiger beetle (Cicindela nevadica lincolniana). Available online. http://www.fws.gov/mountain-prairie/species/invertebrates/saltcreektiger/FinalRecoveryOutlineFeb2009.pdf. Accessed 1/02/2018.

High Plains Regional Climate Center, University of Nebraska. Available online. http://hpcc.unl.edu. Accessed 12/05/16.

Johnsgaard, P.A. 2001. “The Nature of Nebraska.” University of Nebraska Press.

Muhs, Daniel R., E. Bettis III, J. Aleinikoff, J. McGeehin, J. Beann, G. Skipp, B. Marshall, H. Roberts, W. Johnson, and R. Benton. "Origin and paleoclimatic significance of late Quaternary loess in Nebraska: Evidence from stratigraphy, chronology, sedimentology, and geochemistry" (2008). USGS Staff -- Published Research, Paper 162. Available online. http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/usgsstaffpub/162. Accessed 12/05/16.

Spomer, S. and L. Higley. 2001. The Salt Creek Tiger Beetle. Bio-graphica International. Available online. http://drshigley.com/lgh/sctb/default.htm. Accessed 1/02/2018.

U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. NRCS National Ecological Site Handbook. Available online. https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detailfull/soils/ref/?cid=nrcseprd1291232 Accessed January, 2014.

U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. NRCS National Engineering Handbook, Section 4. Available online. https://directives.sc.egov.usda.gov/viewerFS.aspx?hid=21422.
Accessed August, 2011.

Personal communications with professional ecologists and wildlife experts.

Rolfsmeier, S.B. and G. Steinauer. 2010. "Terrestrial Ecological Systems and Natural Communities of Nebraska", (version IV). Nebraska Natural Heritage Program.

USDA, NRCS. National Water and Climate Center, Portland, OR. Available online. http://wcc.nrcs.usda.gov. Accessed 12/05/16.

USDA, NRCS.1997. National Range and Pasture Handbook.

USDA, NRCS. National Soil Information System, Information Technology Center, Fort Collins, CO. Available online. http://nasis.nrcs.usda.gov. Accessed 12/05/16.

USDA, NRCS. 2002. The PLANTS Database, Version 3.5. Available online. http://plants.usda.gov. Accessed 12/05/16.

USDA, NRCS Soil Surveys from: Butler, Saunders, Lancaster, Cass, Otoe, Nemaha, Johnson, Gage, Pawnee, Saline, Seward, Saunders and Richardson Counties in Nebraska; and Atchison, Brown, Doniphan, Douglas, Franklin, Jackson, Jefferson, Johnson, Leavenworth, Marshall, Nemaha, Osage, Pottawatomie, Shawnee, Wabaunsee, Washington, Wyandotte Counties in Kansas.

Contributors

Nadine Bishop
Stu McFarland
Joe May
Doug Whisenhunt

Approval

Suzanne Mayne-Kinney, 6/09/2025

Rangeland health reference sheet

Interpreting Indicators of Rangeland Health is a qualitative assessment protocol used to determine ecosystem condition based on benchmark characteristics described in the Reference Sheet. A suite of 17 (or more) indicators are typically considered in an assessment. The ecological site(s) representative of an assessment location must be known prior to applying the protocol and must be verified based on soils and climate. Current plant community cannot be used to identify the ecological site.

Author(s)/participant(s)	Original Authors: Joseph May and Doug Whisenhunt Version V Authors: Anna Ferguson, Aaron Hird, Justin Linder, Dusty Schwandt, Doug Spencer, Chris Tecklenburg, Nadine Bishop, Jeff Nichols.
Contact for lead author	jeffrey.nichols@usda.gov
Date	11/30/2024
Approved by	Suzanne Mayne-Kinney
Approval date
Composition (Indicators 10 and 12) based on	Annual Production