Ecological dynamics
The Loamy Upland ecological site developed under Central Great Plains climatic conditions, light to severe grazing by bison and other large herbivores, sporadic natural or man caused wildfire, and other biotic and abiotic factors that typically influence soil and site development. Changes occur in the plant communities due to short term weather variations, impacts of native and exotic plant and animal species and management actions.
The Loamy Upland site developed with fire as an integral part of the ecological processes. Historically, a given area burned approximately every 3 to 4 years. Distribution was random, but timing generally corresponded to the summer season when convective thunderstorms are most likely to occur. However, it is also believed that pre-European settlement in North America, Indigenous people used fire as a management tool for attracting herds of large migratory herbivores (bison, elk, and/or deer) as well as for warfare. The role of fire over the past 100 years has been relatively insignificant due to the human control of wildfires and general lack of acceptance of prescribed fire as a management tool. In this region where natural precipitation is capable of supporting eastern deciduous forest, much of this site is vulnerable to encroachment by woody species when fire is removed from the system.
Fire historically played a critical role in maintaining the heterogeneity of this system by removing decadent plant material and creating highly palatable new growth. Large herbivores were attracted to the burned areas and created "grazing lawns". These areas were repeatedly grazed until a new burned area reduced grazing pressure leaving the area relatively undisturbed. The heterogeneity of vegetative diversity and structure of the landscape created by the numerous patches in various states of vegetative recovery was essential to maintaining a diverse wildlife population. These conditions created the array of seasonal niches necessary for the various wildlife species to thrive. Grassland birds are one suite of species whose habitat requirements are particularly dependent on the mosaic of vegetative structure created by the pyric herbivory/ungulate interactions. Patch burn grazing is an emerging management concept that attempts to emulate this historic system. The degree of herbivory has significant impacts on ecological processes such as nutrient cycling and sunlight capture. Historically, these sites were highly attractive to herds of large migratory herbivores and grazing patterns and impacts were a primary influence. Secondary influences of herbivory by species such as insects, rodents, and root feeding organisms impacted the vegetation both historically and currently. (Helzer, 2010).
The Reference Community for this site is tall grass prairie occurring on higher, stable landscape positions that generate runoff. Well-developed soils occur on gentler slopes with favorable precipitation capture and retention, while steeper areas will exhibit higher runoff with carbonates remaining near the surface. Under normal weather and soil conditions, sunlight and energy capture are a primary factor limiting plant growth, making this site ideal to support warm season tall grass communities. The vegetation on this site is locally impacted by topography, and the steepness and aspect of the slope interact with the other ecological processes to further influence vegetative dynamics. The north and east facing slopes are usually cooler and wetter, which results in increased vegetative production, but favors invasion by trees and shrubs as well. This often makes these slopes more resistant to restoration of the native grasslands by fire. Specific ignition techniques may be required when conducting a prescribed burn to ensure mortality of invading trees.
One of the primary impacts to this site introduced by European settlement of North America is due to season-long continuous grazing by domestic livestock. This grazing strategy causes the repeated removal of the growing point and excessive defoliation of the leaf area of individual grasses. The resulting reduction of the plants ability to harvest sunlight depletes the root reserves, subsequently decreasing the root mass. This negatively impacts the ability of plants to compete for life sustaining nutrients resulting in declining vigor and eventual mortality. Grasses with highly elevated growing points (e.g., big bluestem, Indiangrass, gamagrass) and preferred shrubs are the most susceptible to growing season defoliation and typically the first to decrease under unmanaged grazing. The space created in the vegetative community is then occupied by a species that avoids the negative grazing impacts by a growing season adaptation such as a cool season, shorter structure, or reduced palatability mechanism. Noxious weeds such as leafy spurge, sericea lespedeza, nodding plumeless (musk) thistle, and Canada thistles may take advantage of reduced native cover and vigor; however, the cool-season grasses, smooth brome and tall fescue, pose the greatest invasion threat. Smooth brome is the dominant invader in northern portions of the MLRA while tall fescue is more common in the southern portions.
Whereas herds of native ungulates could move freely across the landscape in response to changing conditions, livestock use is constrained in space and often repeated over time, producing a more homogeneous landscape. The management of herbivory by humans through grazing of domestic livestock and manipulation of wildlife populations has been a major modern influence on the ecological dynamics (USDA/SCS, 1977). Additionally, the favorable growing conditions and topography that historically made this one of the largest contributors to the true prairie habitat type in MLRA 106 have also made it one of the most extensively cropped today leaving a fraction of the prairie intact.
The State and Transition Model (STM) is depicted following this section and includes a Reference State (1), a Native/Invaded Grass State (2), and a Sod-busted State (3), and an Invaded Woody State (4). Each state represents the crossing of a major ecological threshold due to alteration of the functional dynamic properties of the ecosystem. The main properties observed to determine this change are the soil, vegetative communities, and the hydrological cycle. The STM illustrates the common plant communities that can occur on the site and the transition pathways between communities (Bestelmeyer, 2010). The ecological processes will be discussed in more detail in the plant community descriptions following the diagram.
Interpretations are primarily based on the Reference State (1) and the Reference Community (1.1) and have been determined by study of rangeland relic areas, areas protected from abusive disturbance, seasonal use pastures, areas under long term rotational grazing practices, and historical accounts.
State 1
Reference State
The Reference State (1) comprises the communities within the range of natural variability under historic conditions and disturbance regimes. Patterns created by wildlife use and fire supported a mosaic of communities across the landscape. Warm-season tall grasses are dominant and warm-season mid grasses are subdominant. Cool-season grasses, forbs, and shrubs are minor functional/structural groups. Eastern gamagrass is naturally absent to rare in the northern half of the MLRA but becomes increasingly common southward. Conversely, cool-season grasses, such as porcupinegrass and Canada wildrye, are more prominent northward. High perennial grass cover allows for increased soil moisture retention, vegetative production, and overall soil quality.
Fire and bison herbivory were the dominant disturbance regimes that historically maintained the tall grass dominance with a diverse forb component. Furthermore, bison grazing was closely linked to fire patterns as the animals preferred grazing burned areas offering highly palatable and nutritious regrowth. Thus, historic plant communities were subject to occasional burning and grazing, with substantial rest/recovery periods as the fuel load rebuilt to eventually start this process again. Fires also served to suppress woody species and to maintain an open herbaceous stand. The degree to which current conditions represent this state largely depends upon how closely contemporary management has mimicked these past disturbance effects.
The Reference State (1) includes the Reference Community (1.1) which is dominated by warm-season tall grasses and the At-Risk Community (1.2) which is dominated by warm-season mid grasses.
Community 1.1
Reference Community
Figure 10. Loamy Upland Ecological site, Reference Community (1.1). Rockefeller Prairie. Douglas County, KS, MLRA 106.
The Reference Community or the Native Tallgrass Prairie Community (1.1) serves as a description of the native plant community that naturally occurs on the site when the natural disturbance regimes are intact or closely mimicked by management practices. This phase is dynamic, with fluid relative abundance and spatial boundaries between the dominant structural and functional vegetative groups. These fluctuations are primarily driven by different responses of the species to changes in precipitation timing and abundance, and fire and grazing events.
The potential vegetation consists of approximately 75 to 90 percent grasses and grass-likes, 5 to 10 percent forbs, and 1 to10 percent shrubs, based upon total annual air-dry weight production. Big bluestem, Indiangrass, little bluestem, porcupinegrass, sideoats grama, and switchgrass are the dominant species making up 70 percent or more of the total annual production. Blue grama, prairie junegrass, Scribner’s rosette grass, composite dropseed and various sedges, shrubs, and forbs are also important plants to the site (Kaul 2006, Steinauer 2010, USDA/NRCS 2012).
This plant community is very stable but there is annual variability of expression of the dominant plant species based on current climate and local disturbances. Late spring fires will stimulate warm season plants while suppressing cool-season grasses and forbs.
The total annual production ranges from 2,975 to 5,400 pounds of air-dry lbs/ac depending on climate, with a representative value of 4,250 lbs/ac.
Table 5. Annual production by plant type
| Plant type |
Low
(lb/acre) |
Representative value
(lb/acre) |
High
(lb/acre) |
| Grass/Grasslike |
2605 |
3612 |
4430 |
| Shrub/Vine |
185 |
319 |
505 |
| Forb |
185 |
319 |
505 |
| Total |
2975 |
4250 |
5440 |
| Jan |
Feb |
Mar |
Apr |
May |
Jun |
Jul |
Aug |
Sep |
Oct |
Nov |
Dec |
| J |
F |
M |
A |
M |
J |
J |
A |
S |
O |
N |
D |
Community 1.2
At-Risk Community
Figure 13. Loamy Upland ecological site, At-Risk Community (1.2), during drought. MLRA 106.
The At-Risk Community (1.2) phase marks a significant reduction in warm-season tall grasses that have decreased due to continued excessive defoliation and/or prolonged drought. Decreased plant litter reduces effective precipitation causing a decline in production compared to the Reference Community (1.1). Reduced efficiencies in the nutrient, mineral, and hydrologic cycles further impair soil health.
Total average annual production ranges from 3,300 to 4,100 pounds of air-dry lbs/ac with an average of 3,700 lbs/ac.
| Jan |
Feb |
Mar |
Apr |
May |
Jun |
Jul |
Aug |
Sep |
Oct |
Nov |
Dec |
| J |
F |
M |
A |
M |
J |
J |
A |
S |
O |
N |
D |
Pathway 1.1A
Community 1.1 to 1.2
A shift from the Reference Community (1.1) toward the At-Risk Community (1.2) occurs with heavy grazing and inadequate recovery periods. This is often seen under continuous season long grazing in excess of carrying capacity and the resulting multiple defoliations of elevated growing points of the palatable tall grasses. Rotational grazing with inadequate, growing season recovery periods will also reduce the productivity of the warm-season tall grasses. Prolonged drought (greater than two years) may also shift the plant community towards species with higher drought tolerance.
Pathway 1.2A
Community 1.2 to 1.1
A shift from the A-Risk Community (1.2) toward the Reference Community (1.1) is achieved by removing or mitigating the stressors, whether they are grazing related or climatic conditions. Prescribed grazing which includes deferment of grazing until late summer following the peak growth period of warm-season species or other grazing strategies focusing on the health and vigor of warm-season tall grasses will allow them to reclaim stand dominance. Following prolonged drought, reduced stocking rates or growing season deferment periods will alleviate the impact of inadequate soil moisture.
State 2
Native/Invaded Grass State
The Native/Invaded Grass State (2) exhibits a co-dominance of both native and introduced species. Native, warm-season, tall grasses such as big bluestem and Indiangrass, may be present as a minor or trace functional group. The plant community consists of the more grazing tolerant native species and a significant component of introduced, cool-season grasses such as smooth brome, tall fescue, and Kentucky bluegrass. Forb diversity is limited to less palatable species such as ironweed and western ragweed. Plant diversity is low.
Impaired energy capture and altered hydrologic function are reflected in reduced vegetative productivity, shallower rooting depth and degraded soil quality. Continuous and heavy grazing pressure will maintain this plant community in a sod bound condition. Grazing management practices that allow for adequate periods of recovery between grazing events and grazing timed early and late during the growing season will reduce the vigor of the non-native, cool-season grasses and may allow the warm-season, tall and mid grasses to increase in abundance and productivity. Return to the Reference State (1) is unlikely due to the loss of plant diversity, overall soil disturbance, and alterations to hydrologic function.
The Native/Invaded Grass State (2) includes the Native/Non-Native Grass Community (2.1) and the Introduced Cool-Season Grass Community (2.2).
Community 2.1
Native/Non-Native Grass Community
Figure 15. Loamy Upland ecological site, Native/Non-Native Grass Community (2.1) with native grasses and smooth brome co-dominant. Martin Prairie, Lancaster County, NE, MLRA 106.
The Native/Non-Native Grass Community (2.1) represents a shift from the Reference State (1) across a threshold to the Native/Invaded Grass State (2). With continued heavy, continuous grazing, little bluestem and cool season introduced grasses increase. Smooth brome is the dominant invader in the northern half of the MLRA while tall fescue is common in the southern portion. Kentucky bluegrass may be subdominant throughout. Native, cool-season grasses may be a significant part of the plant community. Continuous heavy grazing pressure will convert this plant community to a sod bound condition. Forb richness and diversity will decrease as well.
Total annual production ranges from 2,100 and 3,100 pounds of air-dry herbage per acre per year, with a representative value of 2,600 pounds per acre.
| Jan |
Feb |
Mar |
Apr |
May |
Jun |
Jul |
Aug |
Sep |
Oct |
Nov |
Dec |
| J |
F |
M |
A |
M |
J |
J |
A |
S |
O |
N |
D |
Community 2.2
Introduced Cool-Season Grass Community
Figure 17. Loamy Upland ecological site. Non-Native Grass Community (2.2) dominated by smooth brome in MLRA 106.
Figure 18. Loamy Upland ecological site. Non-Native Grass Community (2.2) dominated by tall fescue in MLRA 106.
The Introduced Cool-Season Grass Community (2.2) is dominated by introduced cool-season grasses. Smooth brome or tall fescue are the primary introduced grasses present in the plant community and Kentucky bluegrass may also have a significant presence. Native warm-season grass remnants may be present. Native cool-season grasses may be a minor component of the community. Smooth brome primarily occurs throughout the northern half of the MLRA while tall fescue is common in the southern portion.
Vegetative production from smooth brome and tall fescue dominated communities can be highly variable depending on the species composition and external inputs such as fertilizer and weed control. In a normal year, biomass produced can range from 2,500 to 3,000 pounds per acre with a representative value of 2,750 on rangelands where smooth brome and tall fescue are 75 percent of the plant community composition.
| Jan |
Feb |
Mar |
Apr |
May |
Jun |
Jul |
Aug |
Sep |
Oct |
Nov |
Dec |
| J |
F |
M |
A |
M |
J |
J |
A |
S |
O |
N |
D |
Pathway 2.1A
Community 2.1 to 2.2
Native/Non-Native Grass Community
Introduced Cool-Season Grass Community
Continuation of the stressors which facilitated the transition to the Native/Invaded State (2) facilitate further expansion and dominance of nonnative, cool-season grasses. Site structure and function largely resemble a seeded pasture monoculture, although scattered natives may still be found. Introduced grass seeding, continuous warm season grazing, mid to late summer haying, or untimely and/or excessive fertilization will increase nonnative cool-season species.
Pathway 2.2A
Community 2.2 to 2.1
Introduced Cool-Season Grass Community
Native/Non-Native Grass Community
Prescribed grazing which concentrates grazing pressure during active growth period of the cool season grasses while providing deferment during the warm season portion of the growing season will promote a shift from the Introduced Cool-Season Grass Community (2.1) to the Native/Non-native Grass Community (2.1). Prescribed fire used in conjunction with a cool season grazing program will accelerate the process.
In the presence of a viable native seedbank, nonselective herbicides applied in the early spring and late fall when invaders are actively growing can be beneficial. Established stands of the cool season invaders may require complete renovation through chemical treatment followed by reseeding of the native vegetation. Once the warm season community is reestablished, ongoing prescribed grazing and fire management with adequate recovery during the summer months is critical.
| Prescribed Burning |
|
| Prescribed Grazing |
|
State 3
Sod-busted State
The threshold to the Sod-busted State (3) is crossed as a result of mechanical disturbance to facilitate production agriculture. Extensive areas of this ecological site were plowed and converted to crop production by early European settlers and their subsequent generations. In addition to permanently altering the existing vegetative community, repeated tillage negatively impacted soil properties. Reductions in organic matter, mineral levels, soil structure, oxygen levels, and water holding capacity along with increased runoff and erosion as well as shifts in the populations of soil dwelling organisms were common on these sites. The extent of these changes depended upon the duration of cropping as well as crops grown and other management practices.
If farming operations are suspended, the site can be abandoned or seeded to permanent vegetation. Seedings are either a tame pasture forage mixture, the Seeded Pasture Community (3.2), or a mixture of native grasses and forbs, the Reseeded Native Grass Community (3.1). Abandonment results in the Natural Reclamation Community (3.3). Permanent alterations of the soil, plant community, and the hydrologic cycle make restoration to the Reference State (1) extremely difficult, if not impossible.
Community 3.1
Reseeded Native Grass Community
The Reseeded Native Grass Community (3.1) does not contain native remnants, and varies considerably depending upon the seed mixture, the degree of soil erosion, the age of the stand, fertility management, and past grazing management. Prescribed grazing with adequate recovery periods will be required to maintain productivity and desirable species.
Native range and grasslands seeded to native species are ecologically different and should be managed separately. Factors such as functional group, species, stand density, and improved varieties all impact the production level and palatability of the seedings. Species diversity is often limited, and when grazed in conjunction with native rangelands, uneven forage utilization may occur.
Total annual production during an average year varies significantly depending upon precipitation, management, grass species seeded, and the extent to which soils and hydrologic function have been impacted by the previous farming operations.
Community 3.2
Seeded Pasture Community
The Seeded Pasture Community (3.2) does not contain native remnants and varies considerably depending upon the extent of soil erosion, the species seeded, the quality of the stand that was established, the age of the stand, and management of the stand since establishment.
There are several factors that make seeded tame pasture a different grazing resource than native rangeland and land seeded to a native grass mixture. Factors such as species selected, stand density, improved varieties, and harvest efficiency all impact production levels and palatability. Species diversity on seeded tame pasture is often limited to a few species. When seeded pasture and native rangelands or seeded pasture and seeded rangeland are in the same grazing unit, uneven forage utilization will occur. Improve forage utilization and stand longevity by managing this community separately from native rangelands or land seeded to native grass species.
Total annual production during an average year varies significantly depending upon precipitation, management, grass species seeded, and the extent to which soils and hydrologic function have been impacted by the previous farming operations. Improved varieties of warm-season or cool-season grasses are recommended for optimum forage production.
Community 3.3
Natural Reclamation Community
The Natural Reclamation Community (3.3) consists of annual and perennial weeds and less desirable grasses. These sites have been farmed and abandoned without being reseeded. Soil organic matter and carbon reserves are reduced, soil structure is changed, and a plow pan or compacted layer can form, which decreases water infiltration. Residual synthetic chemicals may remain from farming operations. In early successional stages, this community is not stable. The hazard of erosion is a concern.
Total annual production during an average year varies significantly depending on the succession stage of the plant community, the extent to which soils and hydrologic function have been impacted by the previous farming operations, and any management applied to the system.
State 4
Invaded Woody State
The Invaded Woody State (4) is the result of woody encroachment. Once the tree canopy cover reaches 15 percent with an average tree height exceeding five feet, the threshold is crossed. Woody species are encroaching due to lack of prescribed fire and other brush management practices. Bur oak, eastern red cedar, Osage orange, roughleaf dogwood, honey locust, and coralberry are some of the first woody species to increase. Although these woody species are native to North America, they were not historically a significant part of the Reference State (1). If allowed to continue with little or no disturbance, eastern red cedar, oaks, and elm trees eventually dominate the site. As the overstory closes, various processes act to increase woody dominance. Foliage from woody species shades the understory and intercepts rainfall increasing evaporative loss. Litter acts similarly and further reduces effective precipitation while also creating a less uniform resource distribution with nutrients concentrated under individual trees. Typical ecological impacts are a loss of native grasses, degraded forage productivity, and reduced soil quality. This state consists of the Invaded Woody Community (4.1).
Prescribed burning, wildfire, timber harvest and brush management will move this state toward a grass dominated state. If the Invaded Woody State (4) transitioned from the Native/Invaded Grass State (2) or the Sod-busted State (3) the land cannot be restored to the Reference State (1) as the native plant community, soils, and hydrologic function had been too severely impacted prior to the woody encroachment to allow restoration to the Reference State.
Community 4.1
Invaded Woody Community
Figure 20. Loamy Upland ecological site after burning to restore grassland. Pawnee Lake State Recreation Area, Lancaster County, NE, MLRA 106.
Figure 21. Loamy Upland ecological site after prescribed burn with smooth brome understory. Shawnee State Fishing Lake, Shawnee County, KS, MLRA 106.
The Invaded Woody Community has at least 15 percent canopy cover consisting of trees generally 5 feet or taller. Bur oak, honeylocust, smooth sumac, and roughleaf dogwood are some of the deciduous invaders, while eastern redcedar is the primary evergreen encroacher. In the absence of fire and brush management, this ecological site is very susceptible to eastern redcedar seedling invasion, especially when adjacent to a seed source. Eastern redcedar can eventually dominate the site resulting in a closed canopy monoculture which drastically reduces forage production and which has limited value for either livestock grazing or wildlife habitat. Due to fire suppression over many years, this plant community will develop extensive ladder fuels which can lead to a removal of most tree species with a wildfire. With properly managed intensive grazing, encroachment of deciduous trees will be minimal; however, this will not impact encroachment of conifer species. The herbaceous component decreases proportionately in relation to the percent canopy cover, with the reduction being greater under a conifer overstory.
Eastern red cedar control can usually be accomplished with prescribed burning while the trees are six feet tall or less and fine fuel production is greater than 1,500 pounds per acres. Larger red cedars can also be controlled with prescribed burning, but successful application requires the use of specifically designed ignition and holding techniques (https://www.loesscanyonsburngroup.com).
Re-sprouting brush must be chemically treated immediately after mechanical removal to achieve effective treatment. The forb component will initially increase following tree removal. To prevent return to a woody dominated community, ongoing brush management such as hand cutting, chemical spot treatments, or periodic prescribed burning is required .This plant community is resistant to change and resilient given normal disturbances. In higher canopy cover situations, the soil erosion will increase in relation to most of the plant communities from which this plant community originated. The water cycle is also significantly altered under higher canopy cover. Infiltration is reduced and runoff is typically increased because of a lack of herbaceous cover and the rooting structure provided by the herbaceous species. Total annual production during an average year varies significantly, depending on the production level prior to encroachment and the percentage of canopy cover.
Transition T1A
State 1 to 2
Repeated defoliation of preferred native, warm-season, tall and mid grasses during periods of active growth reduces individual plant vigor and competitiveness. This facilitates an increase by native and nonnative, cool-season species. As warm-season grasses such as big bluestem, Indiangrass, and little bluestem decrease, cool season invaders such as smooth brome and/or tall fescue, colonize and expand. The native forb and shrub component is also affected by the season and degree of livestock pressure. In response to repeated defoliation, this community will shift to less palatable, more grazing tolerant species that includes nonnative invaders. Repeated growing season haying causes a similar species composition shift in the reference plant communities.
Transition T1B
State 1 to 3
The Reference State (1) is significantly altered by mechanical tillage converting site to the Sod-busted State (3) to facilitate production agriculture. The disruption to the plant community, the soil and the hydrology of the system, make restoration to a true reference state unlikely.
Transition T1C
State 1 to 4
Disruption of the natural fire regime and the encroachment of invasive exotic and native woody species can cause the Reference State (1) to shift to the Invaded Woody State (4).
Restoration pathway R2A
State 2 to 1
To restore the Native/Invaded State (2) to the Reference State (1) requires a concerted management effort employing a combination of management tools focused on reduction of the undesirable components of the community and increasing the desired components. Spring/fall grazing with summer deferment, late spring/early summer prescribed fires, and nonselective herbicides applied in the early spring and late fall allow warm season grasses to complete seed setting and rebuild carbohydrate reserves, while reducing these same processes on the cool season species. These tools are the most effective when used in combination. Successful restoration is dependent upon the presence of adequate warm-season tall and mid grass remnants and intact soil and site stability and hydrologic function. If soils have significantly eroded or if the hydrology has been significantly degraded this restoration will not be possible.
| Prescribed Burning |
|
| Prescribed Grazing |
|
Transition T2A
State 2 to 3
The Native/Invaded Grass State (2) is significantly altered by mechanical tillage converting site to the Sod-busted State (3) to facilitate production agriculture. The disruption to the plant community, the soil and the hydrology of the system make restoration to a true reference state unlikely.
Transition T2B
State 2 to 4
Disruption of the natural fire regime and the encroachment of invasive exotic and native woody species can cause the Native/Invaded State (2) to shift to the Invaded Woody State (4).
Transition T3A
State 3 to 4
Disruption of the natural fire regime and the encroachment of invasive exotic and native woody species can cause the Sod-busted State (3) to shift to the Invaded Woody State (4).
Restoration pathway R4A
State 4 to 1
Prescribed burning, wildfire, harvest, and brush management will move the Invaded Woody State (4) toward the Reference State (1). The forb component of a site with heavy tree density or canopy cover may initially increase following tree removal through mechanical brush management treatments and prescribed fire. If resprouting brush is present, stumps must be chemically treated immediately after mechanical removal. Ongoing brush management such as hand cutting, chemical spot treatments, or periodic prescribed burning is required to prevent a return to the Invaded Woody State (4).
Land that transitioned to the Invaded Woody State (4) from the Native/Invaded Grass State (2) or the Sod-busted State (3) cannot be restored to the Reference State (1) through removal of woody species.
| Brush Management |
|
| Prescribed Burning |
|
| Prescribed Grazing |
|
Restoration pathway R4B
State 4 to 2
Prescribed burning, wildfire, harvest, and brush management will move the Invaded Woody State (4) toward the Native/Invaded State (2). The forb component of a site with heavy tree density or canopy cover may initially increase following tree removal through mechanical brush management treatments and prescribed fire. If resprouting brush is present, stumps must be chemically treated immediately after mechanical removal. Ongoing brush management such as hand cutting, chemical spot treatments, or periodic prescribed burning is required to prevent a return to the Invaded Woody State.
Land that transitioned to the Invaded Woody State (4) from the Native/Invaded Grass State (2) or the Sod-busted State (3) cannot be restored to the Reference State (1) through removal of woody species.
| Brush Management |
|
| Prescribed Burning |
|
| Prescribed Grazing |
|
Restoration pathway R4C
State 4 to 3
Prescribed burning, wildfire, harvest, and brush management will move the Invaded Woody State (4) toward the Sod-busted State (3). The forb component of a site with heavy tree density or canopy cover may initially increase following tree removal through mechanical brush management treatments and prescribed fire. If resprouting brush is present, stumps must be chemically treated immediately after mechanical removal. Ongoing brush management such as hand cutting, chemical spot treatments, or periodic prescribed burning is required to prevent a return to the Invaded Woody State (4).
Land that transitioned to the Invaded Woody State (4) from the Native/Invaded Grass State (2) or the Sod-busted State (3) cannot be restored to the Reference State (1) through removal of woody species.
| Brush Management |
|
| Prescribed Burning |
|
| Prescribed Grazing |
|
