Ecological dynamics
The Sandy Lowland ecological sites developed under Northern Great Plains climatic conditions, light to severe grazing by bison and other large herbivores, sporadic natural or man-caused wildfires, and other biotic and abiotic factors which typically influence soil/site development. This continues to be a disturbance-driven site, by herbivory, fire, and variable climate. Changes occur in the plant communities due to weather variations, impacts of native and/or exotic plant and animal species, and management actions.
One of the primary impacts to this site introduced by European settlers is season-long continuous grazing by domestic livestock. This management practice causes the repeated removal of the growing point and excessive defoliation of the leaf area of individual tall warm-season grasses. The resulting reduction of the ability of the plants to harvest sunlight depletes the root reserves, subsequently decreasing the root mass. This negatively impacts the ability of the plants to compete for life-sustaining nutrients, resulting in declining vigor and eventual mortality. The space created in the vegetative community is then occupied by a species that evades the negative grazing impacts by a growing season adaptation (such as a cool season), a shorter structure, or a reduced palatability mechanism.
The State-and-Transition Model (STM) is depicted following this section, and is made up of a Reference State, a Native/Invaded State, a Sod-busted State, and an Invaded Woody State. Each state represents the crossing of a major ecological threshold due to alteration of the functional dynamic properties of the ecosystem. The main properties observed to determine this change are the soil and vegetative communities and the hydrologic cycle.
Each state may have one or more vegetative communities which fluctuate in species composition and abundance within the normal parameters of the state. Within each state, communities may degrade or recover in response to natural and man-caused disturbances such as variation in the degree and timing of herbivory, presence or absence of fire, and climatic and local fluctuations in the precipitation regime.
Interpretations are primarily based on the Reference State, and have been determined by study of rangeland relic areas, areas protected from excessive disturbance, and areas under long-term rotational grazing regimes. Trends in plant community dynamics have been interpreted from heavily grazed to lightly grazed areas, seasonal-use pastures, and historical accounts. Plant communities, states, transitional pathways, and thresholds have been determined through similar studies and experience.
Growth of native cool-season plants begins about April 1, and continues to about June 15. Native warm-season plants begin growth about May 15, and continue to about August 15. Green-up of cool-season plants may occur in September and October if adequate moisture is available.
The following is a diagram illustrating the common plant communities that can occur on the site, and the transition pathways between communities.
State 1
Reference State
This state describes the range of vegetative community phases that occur on the Sandy Lowland site where the natural processes are mostly intact.
The Reference Community is a representation of the native plant community phase that occupies a site that has been minimally altered by management. The Degraded Native Grass, the At-Risk Grass, and the Excessive Litter Communities are the phases that result from management decisions that are unfavorable for a healthy Reference Community. The Ephemeral Forb Community is the result of a high intensity disturbance event.
Higher perennial grass cover and production allows for increased soil moisture retention, vegetative production, and overall soil quality.
Community 1.1
Tallgrass Native Prairie
Figure 8. Reference Community for the Sandy Lowland site. Eastern Kansas, courtesy of Dave Kohake
The Tallgrass Native Prairie Community serves as a description of the native plant community that naturally occurs on the site when the natural disturbance regimes are intact, or closely mimicked by management practices. This phase is dynamic, with fluid relative abundance and spatial boundaries between the dominant structural vegetative groups. These fluctuations are primarily driven by different responses of the species to changes in precipitation timing and abundance, and fire and grazing events.
The potential vegetation consists of approximately 70-85 percent grasses and grass-like plants, 5-15 percent forbs, and 0-5 percent shrubs. Big bluestem, indiangrass, and switchgrass are the primary herbaceous species in this community. Secondary species include little bluestem, and sideoats and blue grama. Elm, willow and cottonwood are often a significant part of this community as well. The site has a fairly diverse forb population.
This plant community is highly productive, diverse, and resistant to short term stresses such as drought and short periods of heavy stocking. The well-developed root systems support resiliency when allowed adequate recovery periods between grazing events.
When exposed to long-term or frequent over-grazing events without adequate rest, this plant community will degrade.
The annual vegetative production of this community averages 6,000 lbs/acre.
| Jan |
Feb |
Mar |
Apr |
May |
Jun |
Jul |
Aug |
Sep |
Oct |
Nov |
Dec |
| J |
F |
M |
A |
M |
J |
J |
A |
S |
O |
N |
D |
Community 1.2
Degraded Native Grass Community
Figure 10. Degraded Community, eastern Kansas. Photo Courtesy of Dave Kohake
Big bluestem, switchgrass, indiangrass, and other desirable species lose productive capacity through loss of vigor and reproductive potential. Forb diversity is reduced.
The proximity of the water table for the deep-rooted tallgrasses on this site helps to sustain that plant community. However, midgrasses such as little bluestem, and grama grasses increase to become the dominant species. Sand paspalum, lovegrass and sand dropseed begin to establish.
This community phase signals a significant loss of production. This is due to continuous season-long grazing with inadequate recovery periods. Grazing-evasive warm-season and cool-season grasses increase. The composition of the forb component remains diverse, and the woody component may increase. While this plant community is less productive and less diverse than the representative plant community, it remains sustainable in regards to site/soil stability, watershed function, and biologic integrity.
Community 1.3
At-Risk Native Community
Figure 11. At-Risk Native Community, eastern Kansas. Photo courtesy of Dave Kohake
In this plant community, the more palatable tall warm-season grasses have been reduced to remnant populations by continued defoliation during their critical growth periods. Grazing-evasive warm-season and cool-season grasses increase significantly. The grama grasses, sand dropseed, sand paspalum and lovegrass become the dominant species. Cheatgrass may become established. The deciduous tree component may increase significantly, and if a seed source is present, eastern redcedar may begin to establish.
Soil health is affected by reduced efficiency in the nutrient, mineral, and hydrologic cycles as a result of decreases in plant litter and rooting depths. Total annual vegetative production declines significantly. Without a management change, this community is at-risk to degrade to the Native/Invaded Grass State.
| Jan |
Feb |
Mar |
Apr |
May |
Jun |
Jul |
Aug |
Sep |
Oct |
Nov |
Dec |
| J |
F |
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A |
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J |
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D |
Community 1.4
Excessive Litter Community
The Excessive Litter Community Phase describes the response of the community to the removal of the natural disturbances of herbivory and fire. As the undisturbed duff layer deepens, infiltration of the precipitation is interrupted and evaporation increases significantly, simulating drought-like conditions.
Community 1.5
Ephemeral Forb Community
This community describes the flush of forbs that occurs in response to a major disturbance, or combination of disturbances. Growing season wildfire followed by hail, extreme prolonged drought, or extreme defoliation by herbivores are all examples of these disturbances. The native warm-season grasses re-establish dominance with-in a few years of the event.
Pathway CP 1.1-1.2
Community 1.1 to 1.2
Degraded Native Grass Community
A shift from the Tallgrass Native Prairie to the Degraded Native Grass community occurs with continuous season long grazing and inadequate recovery periods during the growing season.
Pathway CP 1.1-1.4
Community 1.1 to 1.4
Prolonged interruption of the natural disturbances of herbivory and fire will result in conversion from this community to the Excessive Litter Community.
Pathway CP 1.1-1.5
Community 1.1 to 1.5
A high-impact disturbance event or combination of events causing excessive defoliation of the vegetation, i.e. a growing season wildfire followed by a significant hailstorm, or a prolonged intensive grazing event or long-term drought, etc.
Pathway CP 1.2-1.1
Community 1.2 to 1.1
Degraded Native Grass Community
A shift from the Degraded Native Grass community toward the Reference community can be achieved through prescribed grazing. Applying grazing pressure during the growth period of the undesirable cool season grasses, and allowing rest during the warm season growing season favors our desired species. This grazing regime will enable the deeply rooted tall warm season grasses to out compete the shallow rooted grazing evasive warm season and the cool season grasses.
Appropriately timed prescribed fire will accelerate this process.
| Prescribed Burning |
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| Access Control |
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| Prescribed Grazing |
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Pathway CP 1.2-1.3
Community 1.2 to 1.3
Degraded Native Grass Community
Maintaining continuous season long grazing or haying with inadequate recovery periods during the growing season further degrades the site to the At-Risk Grass Community.
Pathway CP 1.2-1.4
Community 1.2 to 1.4
Prolonged interruption of the natural disturbances of herbivory and fire will result in conversion from this community to the Excessive Litter Community.
Pathway CP 1.2-1.5
Community 1.2 to 1.5
A high-impact disturbance event, or combination of events causing excessive defoliation of the vegetation, i.e. a growing season wildfire followed by a significant hailstorm, or a prolonged intensive grazing event, or long-term drought, etc.
Pathway CP 1.3-1.2
Community 1.3 to 1.2
Degraded Native Grass Community
Reversing the downward trend to the previous community can be achieved with prescribed grazing early and late in the growing season to reduce undesirable cool season grasses. Targeting the peak growth period of cool season grasses with high intensity grazing events followed by rest will allow the tall native warm season grasses to rejuvenate. Appropriately timed prescribed fire will accelerate this process.
| Prescribed Burning |
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| Access Control |
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| Prescribed Grazing |
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Pathway CP 1.3-1.4
Community 1.3 to 1.4
Prolonged interruption of the natural disturbances of herbivory and fire will result in conversion from this community to the Excessive Litter Community.
Pathway CP 1.3-1.5
Community 1.3 to 1.5
A high-impact disturbance event, or combination of events causing excessive defoliation of the vegetation, i.e. a growing season wildfire followed by a significant hailstorm, or a prolonged intensive grazing event, or long-term drought, etc.
Pathway CP 1.4-1.1
Community 1.4 to 1.1
Re-introduction of the natural processes of herbivory and fire will allow the vegetation to return to the previous community.
| Prescribed Burning |
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| Prescribed Grazing |
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Pathway CP 1.4-1.2
Community 1.4 to 1.2
Re-introduction of the natural processes of herbivory and fire will allow the vegetation to return to the previous community.
Pathway CP 1.4-1.3
Community 1.4 to 1.3
Re-introduction of the natural processes of herbivory and fire will allow the vegetation to return to the previous community.
Pathway CP 1.4-1.5
Community 1.4 to 1.5
A high-impact disturbance event, or combination of events causing excessive defoliation of the vegetation, i.e. a growing season wildfire followed by a significant hailstorm, or a prolonged intensive grazing event, or long-term drought, etc.
Pathway CP 1.5-1.1
Community 1.5 to 1.1
Restoration occurs naturally once the disturbance event has subsided. Allowing growing season rest will accelerate the recovery.
Pathway CP 1.5-1.2
Community 1.5 to 1.2
Restoration occurs naturally once the disturbance event has subsided. Allowing growing season rest will accelerate the recovery.
Pathway CP 1.5-1.3
Community 1.5 to 1.3
Restoration occurs naturally once the disturbance event has subsided. Allowing growing season rest will accelerate the recovery.
State 2
Native/Invaded Grass State
This state has been degraded from the Reference State and much of the native warm-season grass community has been replaced by less desirable plants. The loss of tall and mid- warm-season grasses has negatively impacted energy flow and nutrient cycling. Patches of open sand may appear.
Community 2.1
Native Evaders/Invaded Grass
Figure 13. Open sand
Figure 14. Graving evasive invaders
Pictures courtesy of Dave Kohake, eastern Kansas
This plant community represents a shift from the Reference State across a plant community threshold. With continued grazing pressure, lovegrass, dropseed, sandburs, and woodies will become the dominant plant species. Cheatgrass may become dominant in patches. Only trace remnants of the more palatable mid-warm-season grasses such as grama grasses and little bluestem will be present, if at all. Open sand may appear.
Grazing management practices that allow for adequate periods of recovery between grazing events will favor mid and tall warm-season grasses.
Appropriately timed prescribed fire will accelerate the restoration process.
State 3
Sod-busted State
This threshold is crossed as a result of mechanical disturbance to facilitate production agriculture. If farming operations are suspended, the site can be abandoned, which will result in the Naturally Reclaimed Community, or be re-seeded to a desired perennial forage mixture, which is described as the Re-seeded Community.
Permanent alterations of the soil community and the hydrological cycle make restoration to the original native Reference Community extremely difficult, if not impossible. Formation of a compacted plow pan in the soil profile is likely.
Community 3.1
Re-Seeded Grass
This plant community does not contain native remnants, and varies considerably depending on the seed mixture, the degree of soil erosion, the age of the stand, nitrogen fertilizer use, and past grazing management. Prescribed grazing with adequate recovery periods will be needed to maintain productivity and desirable species.
Native range and seeded grasslands are ecologically different, and should be managed separately. Factors such as functional group, species, stand density, and improved varieties all impact the production level and palatability of the seedings. Species diversity is often limited, and when grazed in conjunction with native rangelands, uneven forage utilization may occur.
Total annual production during an average year varies significantly depending on precipitation, management and grass species seeded.
Community 3.2
Natural Reclamation
This plant community consists of annual and perennial weeds and less desirable grasses.
These sites have been farmed and abandoned without being reseeded. Soil organic matter/carbon reserves are reduced, soil structure is changed, and a plow-pan or compacted layer can be formed which decreases water infiltration. Residual synthetic chemicals may remain from farming operations. In early successional stages, this community is not stable. Erosion is a concern.
Total annual production during an average year varies significantly depending on the succession stage of the plant community and any management applied to the system.
State 4
Invaded Woody State
Once the tree canopy cover reaches 15 percent with an average tree height exceeding 5 feet, the threshold is crossed to the Invaded Woody State. Woody species are encroaching due to lack of prescribed fire and other brush management practices. Typical ecological impacts are a loss of native warm season grasses, degraded forage productivity and reduced soil quality.
This state consists of the Deciduous Woodies and the Eastern Redcedar Communities.
Community 4.1
Deciduous Woodies
Figure 15. Deciduous Woody community, eastern Kansas. Photo courtesy of Dave Kohake
This community has at least a 15 percent canopy of wooded cover. Willow, elm, and cottonwood are the primary species in this community. In the absence of fire and brush management, this site is very conducive to cedar seedling invasion, especially when adjacent to a seed source. Cedars can eventually dominate the site, resulting in a closed canopy monoculture which drastically reduces forage production and has limited value for either livestock grazing or wildlife habitat.
Community 4.2
Eastern Redcedar
Willow, elm, and cottonwood may be present, but have generally been crowded out by the cedars. Eastern redcedar will eventually entirely dominate the site, resulting in a closed canopy monoculture which drastically reduces forage production and has limited value for either livestock grazing or wildlife habitat.
Eastern redcedar control can usually be accomplished with prescribed burning while the trees are six foot tall or less and fine fuel production is over 1,500 pounds per acre. Trees of all heights can be controlled with the use of specifically adapted preparation, and ignition and holding techniques.
Mechanical removal is also effective, and requires no follow up spraying as long as the trees are cut below all aboveground vegetation.
Total annual production during an average year varies significantly, depending on the production level prior to encroachment and the percentage of canopy cover.
Transition T1-2
State 1 to 2
Heavy grazing or haying without adequate recovery periods will cause this state to lose a significant proportion of tall and mid- warm-season grass species and cross a threshold to the Native/Invaded State. Water infiltration and other hydrologic functions will be reduced due to the root matting presence of sod-forming grasses. With the decline and loss of deeper penetrating root systems, soil structure and biological integrity are catastrophically degraded to the point that recovery is unlikely. Once this occurs, it is highly unlikely that grazing management alone will return the community to the Reference State.
Transition T1-3
State 1 to 3
The Reference State is significantly altered by mechanical tillage to allow the site to be placed into production agriculture. The disruption to the plant community, the soil and the hydrology of the system make restoration to a true reference state unlikely.
Transition T1-4
State 1 to 4
Disruption of the natural fire regime and the planting of invasive exotic and native woody species can cause this state to shift to the Invaded Woody State.
Transition T 2-3
State 2 to 3
The state is significantly altered by mechanical tillage to allow the site to be placed into production agriculture. The disruption to the plant community, the soil and the hydrology of the system make restoration to a true reference state unlikely.
Transition T 2-4
State 2 to 4
Disruption of the natural fire regime and the planting of invasive exotic and native woody species can cause this state to shift to the Invaded Woody State.
Transition T 3-4
State 3 to 4
Disruption of the natural fire regime and the planting of invasive exotic and native woody species can cause this state to shift to the Invaded Woody State.
Restoration pathway R4-1
State 4 to 1
Prescribed burning, wildfire, harvest, and brush management will move this plant community toward one of the herbaceous plant dominated plant communities. The forb component of a site with heavy tree density or canopy cover will initially increase following tree removal through mechanical brush management treatments and prescribed fire. Neither the Sod-busted nor the Native/Invaded State can return to the Reference State through this process, as the native plant community, soils, and hydrological cycle have been too severely degraded.
| Brush Management |
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| Prescribed Burning |
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| Prescribed Grazing |
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Restoration pathway R4-2
State 4 to 2
Prescribed burning, wildfire, harvest, and brush management will move this plant community toward one of the herbaceous plant dominated plant communities. The forb component of a site with heavy tree density or canopy cover will initially increase following tree removal through mechanical brush management treatments and prescribed fire. Neither the Sod-busted nor the Native/Invaded State can return to the Reference State through this process, as the native plant community, soils, and hydrological cycle have been too severely degraded.
Restoration pathway R4-3
State 4 to 3
Prescribed burning, wildfire, harvest, and brush management will move this plant community toward one of the herbaceous plant dominated plant communities. The forb component of a site with heavy tree density or canopy cover will initially increase following tree removal through mechanical brush management treatments and prescribed fire. Neither the Sod-busted nor the Native/Invaded State can return to the Reference State through this process, as the native plant community, soils, and hydrological cycle have been too severely degraded.
