State 1
Reference

These open woodland communities were strongly influenced by fire. Herbivory by native (now expatriated) ungulates also played a role. Consequently, this maintained drought and fire-tolerant post, black and blackjack oaks over a ground flora of tallgrass prairie grasses, sedges and wildflowers. There are two phases associated with this Reference State.

Community 1.1
Post Oak – Blackjack Oak /Little Bluestem - Ticktrefoil

The overstory in this phase is dominated by post oak and blackjack oak, with black oak and black hickory also present. This open woodland community typically has a two-tiered structure, with canopy height of 40 to 60 feet and 40 to 70 percent closure. The abundant herbaceous layer is dominated by little bluestem, big bluestem and Indiangrass. Fire frequency was every 1 to 3 years. This continued fire would have maintained the more open canopy and profusion of ground flora species. Herbivory by native (now expatriated) ungulates also played a role.

Forest overstory. The overstory is dominated by post oak and blackjack oak, with scattered black oak and black hickory. The Overstory Species list is based on field reconnaissance as well as commonly occurring species listed in Nelson 2010; names and symbols are from USDA PLANTS database.

Forest understory. The abundant understory layer is dominated by little bluestem, big bluestem and Indiangrass. Forbs are common. The Understory Species list is based on field reconnaissance as well as commonly occurring species listed in Nelson 2010; names and symbols are from USDA PLANTS database.

Community 1.2
Post Oak – Blackjack Oak / Oak Saplings / Little Bluestem - Ticktrefoil

This phase is similar to community phase 1.1. Due to fire-free intervals that likey ranged from 5 to 10 years, this brushy woodland community typically has a three-tiered structure, with 50 to 80 percent closure. It is characterized by a thick understory of oak saplings, and shrubs. The herbaceous layer is dominated by little bluestem.

Forest overstory. The overstory is dominated by post oak and blackjack oak, with scattered black oak and black hickory.

Forest understory. It is characterized by a thick understory of oak saplings, and shrubs. The herbaceous layer is dominated by little bluestem.

Pathway 1.1A
Community 1.1 to 1.2

This pathway is a gradual transition that results from fire-free periods of roughly 3 to 10 years or longer.

Pathway 1.2A
Community 1.2 to 1.1

This pathway results from fire. Historically, native grazers such as bison provided understory disturbance as well.

State 2
Fire Excluded and Managed Woodland

Most current areas of Fragipan Upland Woodlands have suffered fire exclusion for decades. In the absence of fire, ongoing recruitment of trees develops into a closed canopy, shading out the rich herbaceous ground flora. This results in the formation of the post oak, black oak, black hickory closed woodland. Black oak and white oak increase in the canopy. Herbaceous cover and diversity greatly diminishes, leaf litter builds up, and only a few shade-tolerant woodland species persist, such as elmleaf goldenrod, panicgrass and spreading aster. The understory also develops with oak and hickory saplings along with sassafras and black cherry. Single-tree timber harvest often occurs, resulting in a stimulation of understory saplings and herbaceous vegetation. However, without fire, the reference species richness and open structure do not return.

Community 2.1
Post Oak – Black Oak – Black Hickory/Oak-Hickory Saplings/Goldenrod

Figure 11. Fragilpan Upland Woodland restoration at the Fuson Conservation Area, Missouri

This phase is dominated by post oak, black oak, and black hickory. Scattered blackjack oak and white oak occur in the canopy as well. This closed woodland community has a multi-tiered structure, with 80 to 100 percent canopy closure.

State 3
Logged and Grazed Woodland

Although many of the closed Fragipan Upland Woodlands are now fenced, most have been heavily grazed by domestic livestock at some point in their history. Grazing decreases the cover and abundance of saplings, shrubs and herbaceous ground flora, opening up the understory. Weedy native shrubs and vines, such as coralberry, gooseberry, poison ivy and Virginia creeper, often flourish after grazing, and exotic species like tall fescue and sericea lespedeza increase in abundance. Poorly managed grazing can cause compaction and denudation of the soil surface, allowing mats of lichens and mosses to flourish. Soil compaction may also further limit height growth of trees. With poorly managed grazing, this can result in an increase in weedy natives such as broomsedge, and exotics such as sericea lespedeza if they are present. Single-tree timber harvesting also occurred, resulting in a high grading of the canopy structure, creating many stands with poorly formed trees.

Community 3.1
Post Oak – Black Oak – Black Hickory / Buckbrush / Broomsedge

The overstory is dominated by post oak, black oak, and black hickory. Scattered blackjack oak and white oak occur in the canopy as well. This closed woodland community has a two to three-tiered structure, and a 80 to 100 percent canopy closure. The understory includes weedy native shrubs and vines, such as buckbrush, gooseberry, poison ivy and Virginia creeper. Mats of lichens and mosses occur on areas denuded by livestock.

State 4
Pine Plantation

The Pine Plantation state results from clearing the oak woodlands and planting shortleaf pine. Shortleaf pine grows well on less-productive sites, so the practice was common during reforestation of the Ozarks in the middle of the 20th century. The plantations are typically dense, mature stands of pine with deep leaf litter and little understory or groundflora vegetation. A return from this condition to a woodland state requires enormous energy inputs.

Community 4.1
Shortleaf Pine

The plantations are typically dense, mature stands of pine with deep leaf litter and little groundflora vegetation. They have a two-tiered structure, with canopy height of about 45 to 60 feet and canopy closures of 80 to 100 percent.

State 5
Grassland

Conversion of these woodlands to planted, non-native grassland species such as tall fescue and red clover has been common occurrence. Clearing is often done by bulldozing. This practice often strips the thin topsoil along with most of the native ground cover plants. Occasionally, clumps of trees will be left in small groves for shade, giving the structural appearance of historic woodlands. However, Fragipan Upland Woodlands have most often been converted into wide, open fescue grasslands, adjacent to densely overgrown and grazed woodlots. A return from this condition to a reference state requires enormous cost and management inputs.

Community 5.1
Tall Fescue - Red Clover

This is an herbaceous community that is typically dominated by tall fescue. Various other grass and forb species are typically present, in various amounts. Shrub and pioneer tree species such as eastern redcedar and black locust along with oak sprouts typically invade sites that are not regularly managed.

Community 5.2
Tall Fescue - Broomsedge/Oak Sprouts

Pathway P5.1A
Community 5.1 to 5.2

Over grazing; no fertilization

Pathway P5.2A
Community 5.2 to 5.1

Brush management; prescribed grazing; grassland management

State 6
Managed Silvopasture

Although this state is currently uncommon, Fragipan Upland Woodlands have the potential to support controlled grazing while maintaining a near-reference composition and structure. Short periods of rotational grazing, especially during the hot, dry summer season, along with thinning and prescribed fire, has the potential to create an open, diverse woodland with abundant native forage. Controlled grazing may emulate historical grazing by native herbivores and create a structural diversity in the ground flora that may be beneficial to ground-nesting birds.

Community 6.1
Oak-Shortleaf Pine/Little Bluestem

This phase has an open, two-tiered structure of post oak and shortleaf pine over native grasses and forbs. Canopy height is typically 40 to 60 feet, with canopy closure of 20 to 60 percent. Native grasses include little bluestem, big bluestem and Indian grass.

Transition T1A
State 1 to 2

Fire suppression; managed timber harvest

Transition T1B
State 1 to 3

This transition results from fire suppression combined with timber harvests and domestic grazing.

Transition T1C
State 1 to 5

This transition is the result of clearing the woodland community and planting pasture species. Topsoil can be relocated to bulldozed burn piles or lost to erosion in this process, along with loss of organic matter. Liming and fertilizing associated with pasture management typically raises the soil pH and increases the cation concentration (such as calcium and magnesium) of the upper soil horizons.

Transition T1D
State 1 to 6

This transition is the result of thinning the canopy species, combined with prescribed fire and well-managed domestic grazing.

Restoration pathway R1B
State 2 to 1

Thinning; prescribed fire every 2-5 years

Transition T2A
State 2 to 3

This transition is the result of poorly managed domestic grazing and timber harvesting.

Transition T2B
State 2 to 4

This transition is the result of clearcutting the hardwood canopy species and planting shortleaf pine.

Transition T2C
State 2 to 5

This transition is the result of clearing the woodland community and planting pasture species. Topsoil can be relocated to bulldozed burn piles or lost to erosion in this process, along with loss of organic matter. Liming and fertilizing associated with pasture management typically raises the soil pH and increases the cation concentration (such as calcium and magnesium) of the upper soil horizons.

Restoration pathway R1A
State 3 to 1

Exclude domestic grazing; thinning; prescribed fire - 2-5 years; long rotations of 70-80 years.

Transition T3A
State 3 to 2

This transition results from the exclusion of domestic grazing and forest stand improvement.

Transition T3B
State 3 to 4

This transition is the result of clearcutting the hardwood canopy species and planting shortleaf pine.

Transition T3C
State 3 to 6

This transition is the result of planting shortleaf pine, combined with prescribed fire and well-managed domestic grazing.

Transition T4A
State 4 to 2

This transition results from clearcut harvest of the shortleaf pine, combined with fire exclusion and long-term succession.

Transition T4B
State 4 to 3

This transition results from clearcut harvest of the shortleaf pine, combined with fire exclusion and long-term succession, under the influence of domestic grazing.

Transition T4C
State 4 to 5

This transition is the result of clearing the pine community and planting pasture species. Topsoil can be relocated to bulldozed burn piles or lost to erosion in this process, along with loss of organic matter. Liming and fertilizing associated with pasture management typically raises the soil pH and increases the cation concentration (such as calcium and magnesium) of the upper soil horizons.

Transition T5A
State 5 to 2

This transition results from the cessation of cattle grazing and associated pasture management such as mowing and brush-hogging. Herbicide application, tree planting and timber stand improvement techniques can speed up this otherwise very lengthy transition.

Restoration pathway R6A
State 6 to 1

Exclude domestic grazing; prescribed fire 2-5 years; long rotations of 70-80 years.

Transition T6B
State 6 to 3

This transition results from fire suppression.

Transition T6C
State 6 to 4

This transition results from planting shortleaf pine.

Transition T6A
State 6 to 5

This transition is the result of clearing the woodland community and planting pasture species. Topsoil can be relocated to bulldozed burn piles or lost to erosion in this process, along with loss of organic matter. Liming and fertilizing associated with pasture management typically raises the soil pH and increases the cation concentration (such as calcium and magnesium) of the upper soil horizons.