State 1
Reference State (minimally-managed)

The reference state condition is characterized by red spruce (30% or more) and yellow birch as dominant components of the overstory canopy. Three-lobed bazzania is common on the forest floor of the reference state (20% or more), and is often accompanied by thick folistic epipedons. Reference state conditions or near-reference state conditions may provide quality habitat for the endangered Cheat Mountain salamander.

Characteristics and indicators. - 30% or more red spruce in the overstory canopy - 20% or more bazzania ground cover - Folistic epipedons

Community 1.1
Red Spruce - Yellow Birch / Bazzania

State 2
Logged Hardwood State

The Logged Hardwood State is characterized by a mix of dominant hardwood species including yellow birch, black cherry, red maple and to a lesser extent American beech. Red spruce may be a component of the overstory to varying degrees, but is always less than 30% canopy cover. Absence of fires or occurrence of light fires did not eliminate the red spruce seedbank, allowing for red spruce sapling regeneration in the understory.

Characteristics and indicators. - Less than 30% red spruce in overstory canopy - Red spruce sapling regeneration is present in understory - O horizons are retained to some degree

Community 2.1
Yellow Birch - Red Maple - Red Spruce / Red Spruce saplings

The yellow birch phase of the Logged Hardwood State is dominated by yellow birch and red maple. Other hardwood species occur at a lesser ratio than yellow birch. Red spruce occurs at varying degrees in the overstory, but always is less than 30% canopy cover. Red spruce regeneration in the understory is prominent to sparse. This is the phase through which restoration into the Reference State may proceed. Beech regeneration in the understory is common.

Community 2.2
Black Cherry - Red Maple - Red Spruce / Red Spruce Saplings

The black cherry phase of the Logged Hardwood State is dominated by black cherry and red maple. Other hardwood species occur at a lesser ratio than black cherry. Red spruce occurs at varying degrees in the overstory, but is always less than 30% canopy cover. Red spruce regeneration in the understory is prominent to sparse. Often this phase is in transition from the beech phase due to severe and persistent beech bark disease that kills overstory and mid-story beech trees. Beech regeneration in the understory is common.

Community 2.3
Beech - Red Maple - Red Spruce / Red Spruce Saplings

Mature and healthy American beech are indicators for this phase. Beech and red maple are co-dominant, and often exist alongside other hardwood species. Red spruce occurs at varying degrees in the overstory, but is always less than 30%. Red spruce regeneration in the understory is prominent to sparse. Pure beech dominated stands are exceedingly rare but do exist, but is most often in a co-dominant canopy status. This phase is often in transition towards other state phases due to disease. Healthy and mature beech stands are not as common as in the past since the introduction of beech bark disease to North America in the late 19th century. Beech bark disease kills mature/maturing overstory and mid-story beech trees slowly over the course of multiple years. Sustained infection kills off beech and creates canopy gaps whereby transition to other state phases progress. Beech regeneration in the understory is common, often times at a high density.

Pathway 2.2A
Community 2.2 to 2.1

Selective thinning of hardwood species to create canopy gaps for yellow birch and red spruce regeneration into the mid-story and overstory canopy. This community pathway should be encouraged in preparation for the future return to reference state conditions. Hardwood thinning is conducted through cutting, ringing, or herbicide application to release red spruce and yellow birch.

Pathway 2.3B
Community 2.3 to 2.1

Beech bark disease kills mature/maturing overstory and mid-story beech trees slowly over the course of multiple years. Sustained infection kills off beech and creates canopy gaps whereby transition to other state phases progress, dependent on the composition of the immediate community. Hardwood thinning is conducted through cutting, ringing, or herbicide application to release red spruce and yellow birch.

Pathway 2.3A
Community 2.3 to 2.2

Beech bark disease kills mature/maturing overstory and mid-story beech trees slowly over the course of multiple years. Sustained infection kills off beech and creates canopy gaps whereby transition to other state phases progress, dependent on the composition of the immediate community. Hardwood thinning is conducted through cutting, ringing, or herbicide application to release red spruce and black cherry.

State 3
Logged & Burned Hardwood State

The Logged & Burned Hardwood State is characterized by a mix of dominant hardwood species including yellow birch, black cherry, red maple and to a lesser extent American beech. Severe fires eliminated the red spruce seedbank whereby red spruce regeneration is absent from the understory. Red spruce is non-dominant in the overstory canopy of this state or completely absent.

Characteristics and indicators. - Absence of red spruce regeneration in understory - Thin O horizons are common and to a lesser extent entirely absent where fires were most severe - Exposed rubbly surface fragments

Community 3.1
Yellow Birch - Red Maple

The yellow birch phase of the Logged and Burned Hardwood State is dominated by yellow birch and red maple. Other hardwood species occur at a lesser ratio than yellow birch. Red spruce generally does not occur in the overstory, while regeneration in the understory is entirely absent. This ecological phase will transition to the yellow birch phase of the Logged Hardwood State with restoration.

Community 3.2
Black Cherry - Red Maple

The black cherry phase of the Logged and Burned Hardwood State is dominated by black cherry and red maple. Other hardwood species beside red maple generally occur at a lesser rate than black cherry. Red spruce generally does not occur in the overstory, while regeneration in the understory is entirely absent. Often this phase is in transition from the beech phase due to severe and persistent beech bark disease that kills overstory and mid-story beech trees. Beech regeneration in the understory is commonly seen. This ecological phase will transition to the black cherry phase of the Logged Hardwood State with restoration.

Community 3.3
Beech - Red Maple

Mature and healthy American beech are indicators for this phase. Beech and red maple are co-dominant, and often exist alongside other hardwood species. Red spruce generally does not occur in the overstory, and in the understory red spruce regeneration is absent. Pure beech dominated stands are rare but do exist. This phase is often in transition towards other state phases due to disease. Healthy and mature beech stands are not as common as in the past since the introduction of beech bark disease to North America in the late 19th century. Beech bark disease kills mature/maturing overstory and mid-story beech trees slowly over the course of multiple years. Sustained infection kills off beech and creates canopy gaps whereby transition to other state phases progress. This ecological phase will transition to the beech phase of the Logged Hardwood State with restoration.

Pathway 3.3A
Community 3.3 to 3.1

Beech bark disease kills mature/maturing overstory and mid-story beech trees slowly over the course of multiple years. Sustained infection kills off beech and creates canopy gaps whereby transition to other state phases progress, dependent on the composition of the immediate community.

Pathway 3.3B
Community 3.3 to 3.2

Beech bark disease kills mature/maturing overstory and mid-story beech trees slowly over the course of multiple years. Sustained infection kills off beech and creates canopy gaps whereby transition to other state phases progress, dependent on the composition of the immediate community.

State 4
Arrested Development State

The Arrested Development State composes landscapes that were logged and burned extensively, representing some of the most disturbed ecosystems of this ecological site. This state contains areas of arrested forest, shrub, and mix-species fields, developed where disturbance was most severe. In some areas the overstory species are stunted in growth. Other areas exist dominantly as scrub/shrub barrens, grading into a structure similar to that of a woodland. Further, some areas in this state consist of rubbly outcrops with high areal cover of mixed grass species. The nonvascular stratum has significant diversity, much of which occurs as abundant crustose lichens on the rocky substrate. In some areas this community was probably maintained by fire (for blueberry production) in the period following European settlement. Native Americans may also have practiced burning in this community. Soils are slowly accumulating surface organic matter again in the absence of widespread fires, and in some areas this community is following a very slow successional pathway back to red spruce-yellow birch dominated forest. In some areas, shallow, infertile, and sometimes waterlogged soils and bedrock outcrops appear to maintain community phases within the ecological state. Other areas of the ecological state contain thicker O horizon accumulations, sometimes classifying as a folistic epipedon. This ecological state is culturally significant in that much of these areas are used for outdoor recreational activities and attract significant attention. Restoration of this state might occur over the course of multiple centuries if initiated and maintained.

Characteristics and indicators. - Presence of tree species repressed in growth - Dominant presence of shrub species - Exposed rubbly surface fragments - High areal cover of mixed grass species

Community 4.1
Arrested Forest

The Arrested Forest community phase contains forest overstory species that exist dominantly at the mid-story canopy level. Canopy is often dominated by red spruce, with a lower cover of red maple, yellow birch, eastern hemlock, and Allegheny serviceberry. Sometimes this community phase does not exist as a closed canopy system.

Community 4.2
Arrested Shrub

The Arrested Shrub community phase is dominated by a mix of shrub species, often times with regenerating red spruce and other hardwood species co-occurring. The shrub strata are diverse with abundant mountain laurel accompanied by lowbush blueberry, mountain holly, great laurel, minniebush, black huckleberry, black chokeberry, southern mountain cranberry, and other shrubs. Mid-story canopy sized red spruce and other hardwood species may occur scattered through this community type.

Community 4.3
Arrested Fields

The Arrested Fields community phase is characterized by rocky, rubbly surfaces that are high in areal cover of mixed species grasses.

State 5
Plantation State

The plantation state is an anthropogenic state created by extensive logging with or without fires and is accompanied by high density plantings of conifer species, most often white pine, red pine, Norway spruce, and red spruce.

Characteristics and indicators. Overstory canopy cover of single species even-aged conifer stands planted in recognizable rows and/or columns.

Community 5.1
Red Pine - White Pine - Norway Spruce - Red Spruce

Transition T1A
State 1 to 2

Logging with the absence of fire or with the occurrence of light fire removes red spruce from the overstory. Succession gives way to native hardwoods dominating this ecological state, with red spruce retained as a minor component of the overstory community. Fires did not eliminate the red spruce seedbank completely, allowing further red spruce regeneration in the understory.

Transition T1B
State 1 to 3

Logging accompanied by severe fires remove red spruce from the overstory. Succession gives way to native hardwoods. Intense fires burned the red spruce seedbank completely. Red spruce may be absent in the overstory and does not regenerate in the understory due to lack of seed source.

Transition T1C
State 1 to 5

This transition is set in motion by logging, intense fire, and commercial tree planting. Some sites reflect planting of abandoned marginal farmland.

Restoration pathway R2A
State 2 to 1

Restoration involves creating canopy gaps for spruce release through thinning hardwood overstory species using ringing, cutting or herbicide application. Canopy gaps release red spruce from the under-story and mid-story, allowing more red spruce to reach the overstory canopy. Underplating red spruce depending on levels of regeneration on site may or may not be required.

Restoration pathway R3A
State 3 to 2

Restoration involves creating canopy gaps for spruce release through thinning hardwood overstory species using ringing, cutting or herbicide application. Canopy gaps allow for the release of red spruce from the understory. Underplanting red spruce is required.

Transition T3A
State 3 to 4

Sustained severe fires and prolonged management leads to complete removal of historic ecosystem and seedbanks after logging. Grass fields, shrub/scrub, and arrested forests are all initiated by this disturbance.

Restoration pathway R5A
State 5 to 1

Variable density thinning (cutting, ringing and/or herbicide application) to create structural diversity and release understory and mid-story spruce. Underplanting red spruce when sapling regeneration is absent.