Ecological dynamics
[Caveat: The vegetation information contained in this section and is only provisional, based on concepts, not yet validated with field work.*]
The vegetation groupings described in this section are based on the terrestrial ecological system classification and vegetation associations developed by NatureServe (Comer 2003). Terrestrial ecological systems are specifically defined as a group of plant community types (associations) that tend to co-occur within landscapes with similar ecological processes, substrates, and/or environmental gradients. They are intended to provide a classification unit that is readily mappable, often from terrain and remote imagery, and readily identifiable by conservation and resource managers in the field. A given system will typically manifest itself in a landscape at intermediate geographic scales of tens-to-thousands of hectares and will persist for 50 or more years. A vegetation association is a plant community that is much more specific to a given soil, geology, landform, climate, hydrology, and disturbance history. It is the basic unit for vegetation classification and recognized by the US National Vegetation Classification (US FDGC 2008; USNVC 2017). Each association will be named by the diagnostic and often dominant species that occupy the different height strata (tree, shrub, and herb). Within the NatureServe Explorer database, ecological systems are numbered by a community Ecological System Code (CES) and individual vegetation associations are assigned an identification number called a Community Element Global Code (CEGL).
[*Caveat] The information presented is representative of very complex vegetation communities. Key indicator plants and ecological processes are described to help inform land management decisions. Plant communities will differ across the MLRA because of the naturally occurring variability in weather, soils, and geography. The reference plant community is not necessarily the management goal. The drafts of species lists are merely representative and are not botanical descriptions of all species occurring, or potentially occurring, on this site. They are not intended to cover every situation or the full range of conditions, species, and responses for the site.
This ecological site, set in well-drained dense till ecological site, supports reference plant communities of mixed hardwoods, such as oaks (Quercus, spp.), hickories (Carya spp.), American beech (Fagus gradifolia), and occasionally tuliptree (Liriodendron tulipifera) and occasional pines (Pinus spp.). Oaks were found to be dominant on terminal moraines within Cape Cod while pines dominated sandy outwash sites (Parshall et al. 2003). These plant communities coincide with Northern Atlantic Coastal Plain Dry Oak-Hardwood Forest system(CES203.475), and Northern Atlantic Coastal Plain Heathland and Grassland (CES203.895). The prevailing ecological processes are related to coastal influences, such as a coastal climate and storms, and if within close proximity to the coast, maritime effects of wind exposure, salt spray, and sand movement. Fire can be an influence. Threats include development and fragmentation, fire-suppresion, off road vehicles, and invasive plants such as, but not limited to, black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia), tree-of-heaven (Ailanthus altissima), autumn olive (Elaeagnus umbellata), white poplar (Populus alba), multiflora rose (Rosa multiflora), Honeysuckles, (Lonicera spp.), oriental bittersweet (Celatrus orbiculatus), japanese knotweed (Polygonum cuspidatum) wineberry (Rubus phoenicolasius), and Asiatic tearthumb (Polygonum perfoliatum). (Source: NatureServe 2018 [accessed 2019], USNVC 2017 [accessed 2019]).
State 1
Reference State (Well-drained Dense Till Uplands)
The predominant plant communities of the Well-drained Dense Till Uplands ecological site’s Reference State (minimally-managed) include:
• Mid-Atlantic Mesic Mixed Hardwood Forest, (American Beech – Oaks (White Oak, Northern Red Oak) - Tuliptree / (American Holly) Forest, [Fagus grandifolia - Quercus (alba, rubra) - Liriodendron tulipifera / (Ilex opaca) Forest], - CEGL006075
• Northeastern Atlantic Coastal Beech - Oak Forest (American Beech - White Oak - Northern Red Oak Forest), [Fagus grandifolia - Quercus alba - Quercus rubra Forest, - CEGL006377
Other associated coastal/maritime communities can include:
• Northeastern Coastal Oak / Heath Forest, (Scarlet Oak - Black Oak / Sassafras / Hillside Blueberry Forest), [Quercus coccinea - Quercus velutina / Sassafras albidum / Vaccinium pallidum Forest], - CEGL006375
• Coastal Oak / Mountain Laurel Forest, (Black Oak - Scarlet Oak - Chestnut Oak / Mountain Laurel Forest), [Quercus velutina - Quercus coccinea - Quercus montana / Kalmia latifolia Forest], - CEGL006374
(Source: NatureServe 2018 [accessed 2019], USNVC 2017 [accessed 2019]).
Community 1.1
American Beech – Oaks (White Oak, Northern Red Oak) - Tuliptree / (American Holly) Forest
This forest is characteristically a mixed forest dominated by American beech (Fagus grandifolia), white oak (Quercus alba), red oak (Quercus rubra), and tuliptree (Liriodendron tulipifera) in various proportions. Overstory associates over the range include black oak (Quercus velutina), scarlet oak (Quercus coccinea), sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua), red maple (Acer rubrum), blackgum (Nyssa sylvatica), mockernut hickory (Carya tomentosa), pignut hickory (Carya glabra), and white ash (Fraxinus americana); and on Staten Island NY may include southern red oak (Quercus falcata). The subcanopy is characterized by young American beech (Fagus grandifolia), red maple (Acer rubrum), American hornbeam (Carpinus caroliniana), flowering dogwood (Cornus florida), and Sassafras (Sassafras albidum). American holly (Ilex opaca) is particularly characteristic and abundant along the coast. The shrub layer is variable and may include mapleleaf viburnum (Viburnum acerifolium), smooth viburnum (Viburnum dentatum), and possibly American strawberry bush (Euonymus americanus). Heath shrubs, such as highbush blueberry (Vaccinium corymbosum) and hillside blueberry (Vaccinium pallidum), may be common but not abundant. Vines are common, including Virginia creeper (Parthenocissus quinquefolia), cat greenbrier (Smilax glauca), and poison ivy (Toxicodendron radicans). The herb layer is composed of Christmas fern (Polystichum acrostichoides), New York fern (Thelypteris noveboracensis), perfoliate bellwort (Uvularia perfoliata), pink lady’s slipper (Cypripedium acaule), partridgeberry (Mitchella repens), crippled cranefly (Tipularia discolor), downy rattlesnake plantain (Goodyera pubescens), white wood aster (Eurybia divaricata), striped wintergreen (Chimaphila maculata), Swan’s sedge (Carex swanii), Indian cucumber (Medeola virginiana), ladyfern (Athyrium filix-femina), slender woodland sedge (Carex digitalis), Willdenow’s sedge (Carex willdenowii), beechdrops (Epifagus virginiana), Canada mayflower (Maianthemum canadense), naked tick trefoil (Desmodium nudiflorum) [= Hedysarum nudiflorum], King Soloman’s seal (Polygonatum biflorum), mayapple (Podophyllum peltatum), Jack-in-the-pulpit (Arisaema triphyllum), and false Soloman’s seal (Maianthemum racemosum). (Source: NatureServe 2018 [accessed 2019], USNVC 2017 [accessed 2019]).
Cross-referenced plant community concepts (typically by political state):
Coastal Forest /Woodland (Swain 2016) [MA]
Coastal Oak-Beech Forest (Edinger et al. 2014) [NY]
Community 1.2
American Beech - White Oak - Northern Red Oak Forest
Northeastern Atlantic Coastal Beech - Oak Forest (American Beech - White Oak - Northern Red Oak Forest), [Fagus grandifolia - Quercus alba - Quercus rubra Forest, - CEGL006377
This plant association comprises coastal oak-beech forests of the north Atlantic Coast and occurs on dry well-drained, loamy sand of morainal coves. It has a mixed canopy of American beech (Fagus grandifolia), white oak (Quercus alba), and black oak (Quercus velutina) in varying proportions. Red oak Quercus rubra) is a common associate, although it never occurs in abundance. Occasional canopy associates that occur with low cover can include scarlet oak (Quercus coccinea), and chestnut oak (Quercus montana) [= Q. prinus]. There are relatively few shrubs and the herb layer includes tree seedlings, especially of Quercus spp. and Americn beech (Fagus grandifolia), plus Swan’s sedge (Carex swanii), Canada mayflower (Maianthemum canadense), white wood aster (Eurybia divaricata), beechdrops (Epifagus virginiana), and false Soloman’s seal (Maianthemum racemosum). (Source: NatureServe 2018 [accessed 2019], USNVC 2017 [accessed 2019]).
Coastal Forest /Woodland (Swain 2016) [MA]
Oak-tulip tree forest (Edinger et al. 2014) [NY]
Northeastern Atlantic Coastal Beech - Oak Forest (Sneddon et al. 2010) [Cape Cod National Seashore]
Pathway CP1.1-1.2
Community 1.1 to 1.2
disturbance, greater fire frequency, coastal proximity
Pathway CP1.2-1.1
Community 1.2 to 1.1
succession, lessor fire frequency
State 2
Semi-natural State
Vegetation on lands somewhat conditioned by land use, e.g., managed native plant communities or invasive plant communities.
Community 2.1
Managed Forest Woodland
Community 2.2
Black Locust Ruderal Forest
Ruderal Black Locust Forest, (Black Locust Ruderal Forest), [Robinia pseudoacacia Ruderal Forest], - CEGL007279
Black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia) can establish on abandoned croplands, pasturing, and former homesites. Associated plants can vary from site to site and include black cherry (Prunus serotina), red ceadr (Juniperus virginiana), American elm (Ulmus americana), slippery elm (Ulmus rubra), shagbark hickory (Carya ovata), hackberry (Celtis occidentalis), black walnut (Juglans nigra), red oak (Quercus rubra), and in some areas Norway Maple (Acer platanoides) or tree-of-heaven (Ailanthus altissima). The understory vegetation is also highly variable depending on site history and often includes (poisen ivy) Toxicodendron radicans; northern spicebush (Lindera benzoin) is sometimes present in loamy , more mesic conditions. The invasive non-native shrub multiflora rose (Rosa multiflora) and bramble wineberry (Rubus phoenicolasius) can be present. Other non-native plants like, garlic mustard (Alliaria petiolata), major celindine (Chelidonium majus), ground ivy (Glechoma hederacea), and European lily-of-the-valley (Convallaria majalis), can characterize the herb layer, which may also include native plants. (Source: NatureServe 2018 [accessed 2019], USNVC 2017 [accessed 2019]).
Other non-native plants can include white poplar (Populus alba), winged burningbush (Euonymus alatus), Japanese knotweed (japanese knotweed (Polygonum cuspidatum), and oriental bittersweet (Celatrus orbiculatus)
Cross-referenced plant community concepts (typically by political state):
Successional southern hardwoods (Edinger et al. 2014) [NY]
Black Locust successional forest (Sneddon et al. 2010) [Cape Cod National Seashore]
Pathway CP2.1-2.1
Community 2.1 to 2.2
Invasive Plant establishment
Pathway CP2.2-2.1
Community 2.2 to 2.1
Invasive Plant Management
Invasive Plant Species Control |
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State 3
Cultural State
Landscapes heavily conditioned by land use, e.g., Plantations/gardens/croplands/hayfields.
Community 3.2
Orchard Grass - Timothy - Fescue species - Goldenrod species Herbaceous Vegetation
This is a broadly defined vegetation type of pastures and is largely composed of non-native cool-season grasses and herbs (generally of European origin) in the early stages of succession. The fields are typically mowed at least annually. Species composition varies from site to site, from site to site but generally feature Orchard Grass (Dactylis glomerata). Timothy (Phleum pratense)- Fescue grasses (Festuca spp.), and some goldenrods (Solidago spp.). Other graminoid associates may include creeping bentgrass (Agrostis stolonifera), winer bentgrass (Agrostis hyemalis), creeping wildrye (Elymus repens), smooth brome (Bromus inermis), cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum), perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne), Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis), Canada bluegrass (Poa compressa), and sweet vernalgrass (Anthoxanthum odoratum). Forbs scattered among the grasses are varied but include hawkweeds (Hieracium spp.), yellow oxalis (Oxalis stricta), common yarrow (Achillea millefolium), common milkweed (Asclepias syriaca), wrinkleleaf goldenrod (Solidago rugosa), gray goldenrod (Solidago nemoralis), early goldenrod (Solidago juncea), Canada goldenrod (Solidago canadensis), tall goldenrod (Solidago altissima), flattop goldenrod (Euthamia graminifolia), field chickweed (Cerastium arvense), evening primrose (Oenothera biennis), common cinquefoil (Potentilla simplex), calico American-aster (Symphyotrichum lateriflorum), New England American-aster (Symphyotrichum novae-angliae), white panicle American -aster (Symphyotrichum lanceolatum), Queen Anne’s lace (Daucus carota), annual agweed (Ambrosia artemisiifolia), bird vetch (Vicia cracca), sweetclover (Trifolium spp.), and many others (Source: NatureServe 2018 [accessed 2019], USNVC 2017 [accessed 2019]).
Cross-referenced plant community concepts (typically by political state):
Cultural Grassland (Swain Swain 2016) [MA]
Successional Old Field (Edinger et al. 2014) [NY]
Nothestern Old Field (Sneddon et al. 2010) [Cape Cod National Seashore]
Pathway CP3.1-3.2
Community 3.1 to 3.2
Pastureland management
Pathway CP3.2-3.1
Community 3.2 to 3.1
Cropland management
Transition T1-2
State 1 to 2
disturbance, invasive plant establishment
Transition T1-3
State 1 to 3
cutting, land clearing, plant establishment
Brush Management |
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Land Clearing |
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Restoration pathway R2-1
State 2 to 1
herbaceous weed treatment, plant removal, plant establishment, successional management
Brush Management |
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Restoration and Management of Natural Ecosystems |
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Native Plant Community Restoration and Management |
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Forest Land Management |
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Invasive Plant Species Control |
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Monitoring and Evaluation |
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Transition T2-3
State 2 to 3
cutting, land clearing, plant establishment
Land Clearing |
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Invasive Plant Species Control |
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Herbaceous Weed Control |
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Restoration pathway R3-1
State 3 to 1
herbaceous weed treatment, plant removal, plant establishment, successional management
Brush Management |
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Restoration and Management of Natural Ecosystems |
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Native Plant Community Restoration and Management |
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Invasive Plant Species Control |
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Monitoring and Evaluation |
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Herbaceous Weed Control |
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Transition T3-2
State 3 to 2
disturbance, invasive plant establishment