Natural Resources
Conservation Service
Ecological site R062XA009SD
Sandy - North
Last updated: 2/06/2025
Accessed: 04/07/2025
General information
Provisional. A provisional ecological site description has undergone quality control and quality assurance review. It contains a working state and transition model and enough information to identify the ecological site.
MLRA notes
Major Land Resource Area (MLRA): 062X–Black Hills
The Black Hills (MLRA 62) is a unique, low lying mountain range situated in the midst of a mixed short and mid-grass prairie. It is a true “Island in the Plains,” as it has geophysical and biological attributes that are unlike the surrounding area. The Black Hills have strong floristic ties to four of the North American biomes: Cordilleran (Rocky Mountain) Forest, Northern Coniferous Forest, Eastern Deciduous Forest, and Grasslands.
MLRA 62 is approximately 3,040 square miles in size; 74 percent is located in South Dakota, and 26 percent is in Wyoming. The towns of Lead, Deadwood, Hill City, and Custer, South Dakota, are in this area. U.S. Highways 16 and 385 cross the MLRA. The Black Hills National Forest, Custer State Park, Mt. Rushmore National Monument, Wind Cave National Park, and Jewel Cave National Monument are located in this MLRA.
This area forms the core of the Black Hills and the Bear Lodge Mountains where the elevation generally ranges between 3,600 to 6,565 feet, however, Black Elk Peak (formerly Harney Peak) rises to 7,242 feet. The slopes vary from moderately sloping on some of the high plateaus to very steeply sloping along drainageways and on peaks and ridges. Narrow valleys generally are gently sloping to strongly sloping.
The Black Hills uplift is the product of the Laramide mountain-building episodes that produced most of the ranges in the Rocky Mountains. Uplift began near the end of the Cretaceous period, 65 million years ago and ended by 35 million years ago (Froiland, 1990). The core of the Black Hills is a plutonic mass of granite with steeply dipping metamorphic rocks, primarily slate and schist, that directly surrounds the granite core. A plateau of Mississippian limestone surrounds the igneous and metamorphic rock core. The Madison limestone is broken around the outer edges of the uplifted area. The Permian Minnekahta limestone forms the outermost boundary of the area. Many other tilted sandstone, shale, and limestone units are exposed like a bathtub ring inside the steeply dipping Madison limestone.
The dominant soil orders in this MLRA are Alfisols (forest soils) and Mollisols (grassland soils). The soils in the area have a frigid or cryic soil temperature regime, a udic or ustic soil moisture regime, and mixed, micaceous, or smectitic mineralogy. They are shallow to very deep, generally are well drained, and are loamy in texture.
The Black Hills MLRA supports open to dense forest vegetation. Ponderosa pine is the dominant species across the Black Hills. White spruce grows at the higher elevations and along the major drainageways. Bur oak is found intermixed with pine in the northern and eastern fringes of the Black Hills, and Rocky Mountain Juniper is most common in the southern portion of the Black Hills. Aspen and paper birch are minor components found throughout the Black Hills. Prairie dropseed, roughleaf ricegrass, green needlegrass, poverty oatgrass, Richardson’s needlegrass, slender wheatgrass, and Canada wildrye are the most common native grasses under open forest stands. The most common native shrubs are bearberry, common juniper, grouse whortleberry, poison ivy, and Saskatoon serviceberry.
MLRA 62 land ownership is approximately 47 percent private and 53 percent federal. Rangeland and forestland are split almost equally between private and federal ownership (47 percent each). Minor areas of land are privately owned cropland and urban development. The forestland in this area is used mainly for timber production, recreation, and grazing.
The major resource concerns are soil erosion and surface compaction caused by logging, mining, wildfires, grazing, and urban expansion. The quality of both ground and surface water is another concern, especially in the northern part of the Black Hills. The primary cause for concern is contamination from mine waste and septic systems in areas of rural development and urban expansion (USDA-NRCS, 2006: Ag Handbook 296).
LRU notes
For development of ecological sites, MLRA 62 is divided into three Land Resource Units (LRUs) or physiographic zones (A, B, C, and Y). Each LRU has a set of ecological sites that represents these zones.
The LRU is identified in the Ecological Site ID: R062XY000SD; “062X” identifies the MLRA, and the next letter “Y” identifies the LRU. Note: The organization of Ecological Site IDs will likely change in the future.
The North, LRU-A includes the northern Black Hills and Bear Lodge Mountains. It receives between 22 and 30 inches of annual precipitation and has a frigid soil temperature regime.
The High Central, LRU-B includes the high elevation (> 6,200 feet) central core of the Black Hills, which receives between 25 to 35 inches of annual precipitation and has a cryic soil temperature regime.
The South, LRU-C includes the southern portion of the Black Hills and receives between 17 to 21 inches of annual precipitation and has a frigid soil temperature regime.
One additional grouping of ecological sites that are common to the entire MLRA are designated with a “Y” in the ecological site ID.
Classification relationships
USDA
Land Resource Region G—Western Great Plains Range and Irrigated Region:
Major Land Resource Area (MLRA) 62—Black Hills
US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
Level IV Ecoregions of the Conterminous United States:
Black Hills Plateau—17b
Black Hills Core Highlands—17c
USDA Forest Service
Ecological Subregions: Sections and Subsections of Conterminous United States:
Black Hills Coniferous Forest Province—M334:
Black Hills Section—334A
Black Hills Limestone Plateau-Core Highlands Subsection—M334Ab
Ecological site concept
The Sandy - North ecological site occurs in the northern Black Hills of South Dakota and Wyoming. It is located on upland landscapes and does not receive additional moisture from runoff or overflow. Typical slopes range is from 0 to 15 percent, but can range up to 60 percent in some areas. Soils are deep to very deep (greater than 20 inches). Surface textures range from sandy loam to loamy fine sand, with depths of 3 to 8 inches. Subsurface textures range from coarse-loamy sand to sandy with up to 30 percent rock fragments.
The vegetation in the Reference State (1.0) consists of cool-season bunchgrasses and short warm-season grasses. Forbs are common and diverse. Shrubs include Oregon grape, chokecherry, and bearberry. The site is often wooded, having an overstory of Ponderosa pine, and scattered bur oak and aspen. Areas with a significant pine overstory may have 1 to 2 inches of pine needles and duff on the soil surface.
Associated sites
| F062XB052SD |
Highland Hills Pine Forest(0-15% Slope) The Mod Steep to Steep Low Mountain Slopes forest ecological site is found adjacent to the Sandy - North ecological site. The forest ecological site will exhibit forest soils, the Sandy - North ecological site will not. |
|---|---|
| R062XY012SD |
Thin Upland The Thin Upland ecological site is found on steeper slopes adjacent to or up-slope of the Sandy - North ecological site. |
| R062XA011SD |
Clayey - North The Clayey - North ecological site is found on similar slopes and landscapes as the Sandy - North ecological site. |
| R062XA010SD |
Loamy - North The Loamy - North ecological site is found on similar slopes and landscapes as the Sandy - North ecological site. |
Similar sites
| R062XA010SD |
Loamy - North The Loamy - North ecological site will have less ponderosa pine; and greater herbacious production than the Sandy - North ecological site. |
|---|---|
| R062XY012SD |
Thin Upland The Thin Upland ecological site will have less ponderosa pine; less needlegrass, and more big and little bluestem than the Sandy - North ecological site. |
| F062XB052SD |
Highland Hills Pine Forest(0-15% Slope) The Mod Steep to Steep Low Mountain Slopes forest ecological site will exhibit well developed forest soils; more ponderosa pine; and less herbaceous production than the Sandy - North ecological site. |
Table 1. Dominant plant species
| Tree |
(1) Pinus ponderosa var. scopulorum |
|---|---|
| Shrub |
Not specified |
| Herbaceous |
(1) Oryzopsis asperifolia |
Physiographic features
The Sandy - North ecological site occurs on gently sloping to very steep mountain shoulders, ridges, and backslopes in the northern Black Hills. Typical slopes range is from 0 to 15 percent, but can range up to 60 percent in some areas.
Table 2. Representative physiographic features
| Landforms |
(1)
Ridge
(2) Hillslope |
|---|---|
| Runoff class | Low to medium |
| Flooding frequency | None |
| Ponding frequency | None |
| Elevation | 3,800 – 6,200 ft |
| Slope | 50% |
| Water table depth | 80 in |
| Aspect | Aspect is not a significant factor |
Climatic features
MLRA 62 is in a microclimate caused by the influence of increased elevation, which leads to increased precipitation, moderate air temperature, and lower wind velocities as compared to the surrounding Great Plains. In general, the Black Hills climate is a continental type: cold in the winter and hot in the summer.
Annual precipitation in MLRA 62 typically increases with elevation and decreases from west to east and from north to south. The average annual precipitation range for MLRA 62 is 18 to 35 inches. Most of the rainfall occurs as frontal storms early in the growing season, in May and June. Some high-intensity, convective thunderstorms occur in July and August. Precipitation in the winter occurs mostly as snow. Twenty to 40 percent of the annual precipitation falls as snow. The annual average snowfall ranges from 23 inches at the lower elevations in the south, to 54 inches in the higher elevations of the central core of the Black Hills.
The average annual temperature varies from 36°F to 48°F. January is the coldest month, with an average temperature of 22°F in the higher elevation of the central core, and 25°F in the southern part of MLRA 62. July is the warmest month, with an average daily temperature of 67°F in the central core, and 73°F in the southern part of this MLRA. The frost-free period ranges from 143 to 168 days. It is shortest at higher elevations and in the northwestern part of the MLRA. Hourly winds are estimated to average about 11 miles per hour (mph) annually.
Growth of cool-season plants begins in April, slowing or ceasing growth by mid-August. Warm-season plants begin growth in May and continue to mid-September. Regrowth of cool-season plants may occur in September and October, depending upon soil moisture availability.
The average annual precipitation range for LRU-A (Northern Black Hills and Bear Lodge Mountains) is 20 to 30 inches.
Table 3. Representative climatic features
| Frost-free period (characteristic range) | 46-87 days |
|---|---|
| Freeze-free period (characteristic range) | 87-119 days |
| Precipitation total (characteristic range) | 20-30 in |
| Frost-free period (actual range) | 24-93 days |
| Freeze-free period (actual range) | 62-124 days |
| Precipitation total (actual range) | 20-30 in |
| Frost-free period (average) | 65 days |
| Freeze-free period (average) | 101 days |
| Precipitation total (average) | 24 in |
Figure 1. Monthly precipitation range
Figure 2. Monthly minimum temperature range
Figure 3. Monthly maximum temperature range
Figure 4. Monthly average minimum and maximum temperature
Figure 5. Annual precipitation pattern
Figure 6. Annual average temperature pattern
Climate stations used
-
(1) LEAD [USC00394834], Lead, SD
-
(2) DEADWOOD 2NE [USC00392209], Whitewood, SD
-
(3) PACTOLA DAM [USC00396427], Rapid City, SD
-
(4) CUSTER [USC00392087], Custer, SD
-
(5) DEERFIELD 3 SE [USC00392231], Hill City, SD
Influencing water features
No riparian areas or wetland features are directly associated with the Sandy - North ecological site.
Soil features
Soils common to the Sandy – North ecological site are moderately deep to very deep and well to somewhat excessively drained. They may or may not be calcareous, but when present, carbonates typically occur below 10 inches. Pine encroachment is common in some areas. Areas that have significant pine encroachment may have 1 to 2 inches of pine needles and duff on the soil surface. The surface layer averages 3 to 8 inches in thickness. Surface textures range between sandy loam and loamy fine sand. Subsurface textures are coarse loamy to sandy and may contain up to 30 percent rock fragments (typically <15), many of which are weakly cemented. Slopes typically range from 0 to 15 percent, but can range up to 50 percent in some areas. The soils on this site do not have layers restrictive to water movement and root penetration. Representative soils of this ecological site have a frigid temperature regime.
The primary soils correlated to the Sandy - North ecological site are, Alice (cool) and Danjay.
Wind and water erosion are concerns on this site. Wind erosion can become a problem on sites that are overgrazed or mechanically disturbed. In severe cases, wind erosion can cause plants to become pedestalled, and the formation of wind rills will occur. Water erosion is normally minimal on slopes less than about 9 percent. Sheet and rill erosion can occur on linear surfaces where slopes range from 9 to about 15 percent. On non-linear (undulating) surfaces, rill erosion is dominant. On slopes greater than 15 percent, rill erosion can be present on all types of surfaces. Rill erosion can often morph into gully erosion on steeper sites, in areas where rill flow paths converge into one. Loss of 50 percent or more of the surface layer of the soils on this site can result in a shift in species composition and/or production.
More information can be found in the various soil survey reports. Contact the local USDA Service Center for soil survey reports that include more detail specific to your area of interest, or use the internet to access USDA’s Web Soil Survey.
Table 4. Representative soil features
| Parent material |
(1)
Eolian deposits
–
sandstone
(2) Residuum – sandstone |
|---|---|
| Surface texture |
(1) Sandy loam (2) Fine sandy loam (3) Loamy fine sand |
| Family particle size |
(1) Sandy (2) Coarse-loamy |
| Drainage class | Well drained to somewhat excessively drained |
| Permeability class | Moderately rapid to rapid |
| Soil depth | 20 – 40 in |
| Surface fragment cover <=3" | 5% |
| Surface fragment cover >3" | 3% |
| Available water capacity (0-40in) |
1 – 6 in |
| Calcium carbonate equivalent (0-40in) |
5% |
| Electrical conductivity (0-40in) |
2 mmhos/cm |
| Sodium adsorption ratio (0-40in) |
1 |
| Soil reaction (1:1 water) (0-40in) |
6.1 – 8.4 |
| Subsurface fragment volume <=3" (Depth not specified) |
30% |
| Subsurface fragment volume >3" (Depth not specified) |
15% |
Ecological dynamics
The Sandy - North ecological site developed under northern Black Hills climatic conditions; light to severe grazing by bison, elk, insects, and small mammals; sporadic, natural or human-caused wildfire; and other biotic and abiotic factors that typically influence soil and site development. Changes occur in the plant communities due to short-term weather variations, effects of native and exotic plant and animal species, and management actions. Severe disturbances, such as wildfire, periods of well below-average precipitation, severe defoliation, or non-use and no fire can cause significant shifts in plant communities and species composition.
Interpretations are primarily based on the Roughleaf Ricegrass-Needlegrass/Shrubs/Ponderosa Pine Plant Community (1.1). It has been determined by the study of rangeland relic areas, areas protected from excessive disturbance, and areas under long-term rotational grazing regimes. Trends in plant community dynamics ranging from heavily to lightly grazed areas, seasonal use pastures, and historical accounts also have been used. Plant community phases, states, transitional pathways, and thresholds have been determined through similar studies and experience.
The Reference State (1.0) may be difficult to locate in MLRA 62 with the prevalence of non- native cool-season grasses. Plant Community 2.1 is most similar to the Reference Plant Community, but a restoration pathway to the Reference State (1.0) is not believed to be achievable because of the persistence of non-native cool-season grasses.
Continuous seasonal grazing (e.g., every spring or every summer at moderate to heavy stocking levels) without adequate recovery periods following grazing events and no fire will cause a departure from the Roughleaf Ricegrass-Needlegrass/Shrubs/Ponderosa Pine Plant Community (1.1). Needlegrasses will begin to decrease in frequency and production, and roughleaf ricegrass, ponderosa pine, and shrubs will increase. The invasion and establishment of non-native cool-season grasses including Kentucky bluegrass and smooth brome into the plant community can occur with continuous seasonal grazing or extended periods of non-use and no fire. Excessive defoliation or high-intensity fire can cause annuals and pioneer perennials to dominate the site. Long-term no fire and the encroachment and establishment of conifer trees will shift the site to a conifer dominated plant community.
The following is a State-and-Transition diagram that illustrates the common plant communities that can occur on the site and the transition pathways between communities. The ecological processes will be discussed in more detail in the plant community descriptions following the diagram.
State and transition model
More interactive model formats are also available.
View Interactive Models
Click on state and transition labels to scroll to the respective text
State 1 submodel, plant communities
State 2 submodel, plant communities
State 4 submodel, plant communities
State 1
Reference State
The Reference State represents what is believed to show the natural range of variability that dominated the dynamics of the ecological site prior to European settlement. This site in the Reference State (1.0) is dominated by cool-season bunchgrasses and subdominant short warm-season grasses. Grazing or the lack of grazing, insects and disease, and changing fire return intervals are the major drivers between plant communities. Heavy, continuous season-long grazing (grazing at stocking levels well above sustainable carrying capacity for extended portions of the growing season, and at the same time of year each year, without adequate recovery periods following each grazing occurrence) or high-intensity fire can push this state to an annual and pioneer perennial State (4.0). Non-use, no fire, and invasion of non-native cool-season grasses will result in a transition to a Native/Invaded State (3.0). Long-term fire suppression and conifer encroachment and expansion can transition the Reference State (1.0) to the Conifer State (2.0).
Dominant plant species
-
ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa), tree
-
chokecherry (Prunus virginiana), shrub
-
creeping barberry (Mahonia repens), shrub
-
roughleaf ricegrass (Oryzopsis asperifolia), grass
-
needlegrass (Nassella), grass
-
goldenrod (Solidago), other herbaceous
-
little larkspur (Delphinium bicolor), other herbaceous
Community 1.1
Roughleaf Ricegrass-Needlegrass/Shrubs/Ponderosa Pine
Interpretations are based primarily on the Roughleaf Ricegrass-Needlegrass/Shrubs/Ponderosa Pine Plant Community, which is also considered to be Reference Plant Community (1.1). The potential vegetation is about 65 percent grasses or grass-like plants, 10 percent forbs, 10 percent shrubs, and 15 percent trees. The community is dominated by cool-season bunchgrasses and subdominant short warm-season grasses. The major grasses include roughleaf ricegrass, slender wheatgrass, Richardson needlegrass, Columbia needlegrass, needle and thread, and blue grama. Other grass and grass-like species include littleseed ricegrass, Cusick’s bluegrass, needleleaf sedge, and Richardson’s sedge. Common forbs include goldenrod, little larkspur, pussytoes, and western yarrow. Chokecherry, Oregon grape, common snowberry, and bearberry are common shrubs. Ponderosa pine will almost always be present and can make up to 10 percent of the canopy cover. Bur oak and aspen will be scattered across this site. This plant community is resilient and well adapted to the Northern Black Hills climatic conditions. The diversity in plant species allows for high drought tolerance. This is a sustainable plant community in regard to site and soil stability, watershed function, and biologic integrity.
Figure 7. Annual production by plant type (representative values) or group (midpoint values)
Table 5. Annual production by plant type
| Plant type | Low (lb/acre) |
Representative value (lb/acre) |
High (lb/acre) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Grass/Grasslike | 935 | 1148 | 1260 |
| Tree | 25 | 128 | 230 |
| Forb | 70 | 110 | 155 |
| Shrub/Vine | 70 | 114 | 155 |
| Total | 1100 | 1500 | 1800 |
Figure 8. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). SD6202, Black Hills, cool-season dominant, warm-season sub-dominant. Cool-season dominant, warm-season sub-dominant.
| Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| J | F | M | A | M | J | J | A | S | O | N | D |
| 0 | 0 | 3 | 10 | 23 | 34 | 15 | 6 | 5 | 4 | 0 | 0 |
Community 1.2
Ponderosa Pine-Bur Oak/Shrubs/Roughleaf Ricegrass
This plant community evolved under continuous seasonal grazing (grazing at moderate to heavy stocking levels at the same time of year each year), and an extended period of no fire. The potential plant community is made up of approximately 50 percent grasses or grass-like plants, 10 percent forbs, and 40 percent shrubs and trees. Ponderosa pine will make up to 25 percent of the canopy cover. Bur oak and aspen will be scattered across this site. Dominant grass and grass-like species include roughleaf ricegrass and sedges. Forbs commonly found in this plant community include goldenrod and western yarrow. Choke cherry, common snowberry and bearberry are common shrubs. When compared to the Roughleaf Ricegrass-Needlegrass/Shrubs/Ponderosa Pine Plant Community (1.1), Ponderosa pine and shrubs have increased. Needlegrasses and slender wheatgrass have decreased. This plant community is moderately resistant to change. If the herbaceous component is intact, it tends to be resilient if the disturbance is not long-term. The hydrologic function of the site is beginning to be altered with the increase of pine needle litter and the potential increase in bare ground.
Figure 9. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). SD6201, Black Hills, cool-season dominant. Cool-season dominant.
| Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| J | F | M | A | M | J | J | A | S | O | N | D |
| 0 | 0 | 4 | 12 | 25 | 36 | 10 | 5 | 4 | 4 | 0 | 0 |
Pathway 1.1A
Community 1.1 to 1.2
Continuous seasonal grazing which includes grazing at moderate to heavy stocking levels at the same time of year each year and no fire will shift the Roughleaf Ricegrass-Needlegrass/Shrubs/Ponderosa Pine Plant Community (1.1) to the Ponderosa Pine-Bur Oak/Shrubs/Roughleaf Ricegrass Plant Community (1.2).
Pathway 1.2A
Community 1.2 to 1.1
The Ponderosa Pine-Bur Oak/Shrubs/Roughleaf Ricegrass Plant Community (1.2) will transition back to the Roughleaf Ricegrass-Needlegrass/Shrubs/Ponderosa Pine Plant Community (1.1) with low-intensity fire (either naturally occurring or with prescribed burning) and prescribed grazing with proper stocking rates, alternating season of use, and adequate recovery periods following grazing events. A short period of rest, or non-use may be needed following burns. Insect infestation and disease in the ponderosa pine stands can create the situation for natural burns. These fire events can be either of low-intensity or high-intensity. High-intensity fires are likely to transition this plant community (1.2) to the Early Successional State (4.0).
Conservation practices
| Prescribed Burning | |
|---|---|
| Prescribed Grazing |
State 2
Conifer State
This Conifer State consists of areas where tree canopy increases to a level that impedes the reproductive capability of the major native perennial grass species. The increase in conifer canopy is a result of encroachment from forest sites, or the expansion of ponderosa pine due to long-term fire suppression. This state is reached when mature ponderosa pine canopy reaches approximately 25 percent or more. Bur oak and aspen may also be present in varying amounts. With continued long-term fire suppression and no brush management, the conifer canopy can eventually become closed with much of the herbaceous understory lost. This loss is partly driven by the interception of precipitation. Ponderosa pine canopy can significantly reduce precipitation reaching the ground due to canopy interception. In areas with intermediate and dense canopies, the expected effective precipitation can be reduced by 30 percent (Wrage, 1994).
Dominant plant species
-
ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa), tree
-
bur oak (Quercus macrocarpa), tree
-
creeping barberry (Mahonia repens), other herbaceous
Community 2.1
Ponderosa Pine-Bur Oak/Oregon Grape
This plant community develops where trees from adjacent forest sites encroach, or trees naturally occurring on the site increase and begin to shade out the herbaceous component. Ponderosa pine is the most common species to occupy the site, but bur oak and aspen are also likely to occur. With long-term suppression of fire and no brush management the tree canopy eventually becomes closed and most of the herbaceous understory is lost. Mature tree canopy approaches 45 percent or higher and competition slows the growth rate of the trees. A few cool-season species may survive, as well as shrubs and possibly vines. This plant community may only be altered through brush management or possibly fire. This plant community is at high risk for insects, disease, and catastrophic fire. This plant community will also be accompanied by a relatively thick layer of acidic duff from the needles of the trees which will further reduce the establishment of herbaceous species. A significant reduction of tree canopy can be accomplished through fire, mechanical brush management, or prescribed burning. The vegetation in the understory is capable of enduring fire; however, very hot crown fires will have a detrimental effect to the whole plant community.
Figure 10. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). SD6211, Black Hills, heavy conifer canopy. Mature ponderosa pine overstory.
| Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| J | F | M | A | M | J | J | A | S | O | N | D |
| 1 | 3 | 7 | 11 | 24 | 27 | 12 | 5 | 4 | 3 | 2 | 1 |
State 3
Native/Invaded State
The Native/Invaded State (3.0) is dominated by native cool-season bunchgrasses and subdominant non-native cool-season grasses (< 15 percent composition by weight). With the prevalence of non-native cool-season grasses (Kentucky bluegrass, smooth brome, and timothy) in MLRA 62, the plant communities in the Native/Invaded State (3.0) may be the most similar to those plant communities in Reference State (1.0). A restoration pathway to the Reference State (1.0) is unlikely. Extended periods of non-use and no fire, or long-term continuous seasonal grazing can result in the expansion of non-native cool-season grasses on this site. As native cool-season grasses decline, a corresponding increase of non-native cool-season grasses will occur. The Native/Invaded State (3.0) can be found on areas that are properly managed with grazing and possibly prescribed burning. Heavy, continuous seasonal grazing or high-intensity fire can push the Native/Invaded State (3.0) to an annual and pioneer perennial State (4.0). Long-term fire suppression and conifer encroachment and/or expansion can transition this state to the Conifer State (2.0). The Native/Invaded State (3.0) is sustainable in regard to site and soil stability, and watershed function.
Dominant plant species
-
ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa), tree
-
chokecherry (Prunus virginiana), shrub
-
creeping barberry (Mahonia repens), shrub
-
roughleaf ricegrass (Oryzopsis asperifolia), grass
-
slender wheatgrass (Elymus trachycaulus), grass
-
goldenrod (Solidago), other herbaceous
-
little larkspur (Delphinium bicolor), other herbaceous
Community 3.1
Roughleaf Ricegrass-Needlegrass-Non-Native Cool-Season Grasses (< 15%)/Shrubs/Ponderosa Pine
This plant community develops when non-native cool-season grasses, such as Kentucky bluegrass, smooth brome, or timothy invade and become established on the site. This may occur due to the site’s close proximity to seed sources, expansion from road ditches, improved pastures, other invaded sites, and from contaminated hay. Repeated seasonal grazing (typically during the summer), or extended periods of non-use and no fire, will allow these non-native cool-season grasses to increase in the plant community. Plant litter will accumulate in large amounts when this community first develops. Litter buildup reduces mature native plant vigor and density, and seedling recruitment declines. Eventually litter levels become high enough that plant density decreases. The potential vegetation is about 65 percent grasses or grass-like plants, 10 percent forbs, 10 percent shrubs, and 15 percent trees. The community is dominated by cool-season bunchgrasses and subdominant non-native cool-season grasses. The major grasses include roughleaf ricegrass, slender wheatgrass, Richardson needlegrass, green needlegrass, and Kentucky bluegrass. Other grass and grass-like species include blue grama, littleseed ricegrass, needleleaf sedge, and Richardson’s sedge. Common forbs include goldenrod, little larkspur, pussytoes, and western yarrow. Chokecherry, Oregon grape, common snowberry, and bearberry are common shrubs. Ponderosa pine will almost always be present and can make up to 10 percent of the canopy cover. Bur oak and aspen will be scattered across this site. This plant community is resilient and well adapted to the Northern Black Hills climatic conditions. The non-native species typically do not increase to the point of dominance; however, their presence tends to reduce the overall diversity of the plant community. As such, this is a somewhat sustainable plant community in regard to site and soil stability, watershed function, and biologic integrity.
Figure 11. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). SD6201, Black Hills, cool-season dominant. Cool-season dominant.
| Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| J | F | M | A | M | J | J | A | S | O | N | D |
| 0 | 0 | 4 | 12 | 25 | 36 | 10 | 5 | 4 | 4 | 0 | 0 |
Community 3.2
Ponderosa Pine-Bur Oak/Shrubs/Roughleaf Ricegrass-Non-Native Cool-Season Grasses
This plant community evolved under continuous seasonal grazing (grazing at moderate to heavy stocking levels at the same time of year each year), and an extended period of no fire. The potential plant community is made up of approximately 50 percent grasses or grass-like plants, 10 percent forbs, and 40 percent shrubs and trees. Ponderosa pine will make up to 25 percent of the canopy cover. Bur oak and aspen will be scattered across this site. Dominant grass and grass-like species include roughleaf ricegrass, Kentucky bluegrass, and sedges. Forbs commonly found in this plant community include goldenrod and western yarrow. Chokecherry, common snowberry and bearberry are common shrubs. When compared to the Roughleaf Ricegrass-Needlegrass-Non-Native Cool-Season Grasses (<15%)/Shrubs/Ponderosa Pine Plant Community (3.1), Ponderosa pine and shrubs have increased, and the herbaceous understory has decreased. This plant community is moderately resistant to change. If the herbaceous component is intact, it tends to be resilient if the disturbance is not long-term. The hydrologic function of the site is beginning to be altered with the increase of pine needle litter and the potential increase in bare ground.
Figure 12. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). SD6201, Black Hills, cool-season dominant. Cool-season dominant.
| Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| J | F | M | A | M | J | J | A | S | O | N | D |
| 0 | 0 | 4 | 12 | 25 | 36 | 10 | 5 | 4 | 4 | 0 | 0 |
Pathway 3.1A
Community 3.1 to 3.2
Continuous seasonal grazing which includes grazing at moderate to heavy stocking levels at the same time of year each year and no fire will shift Plant Community (3.1) to the Ponderosa Pine-Bur Oak/Shrubs/Roughleaf Ricegrass-Non-Native Cool-Season Grasses Plant Community (3.2).
Pathway 3.2A
Community 3.2 to 3.1
The Ponderosa Pine-Bur Oak/Shrubs/Roughleaf Ricegrass-Non-Native Cool-Season Grasses Plant Community (3.2) will transition back to the Roughleaf Ricegrass-Needlegrass-Non-Native Cool-Season Grasses (<15%)/Shrubs/Ponderosa Pine Plant Community (3.1) with low-intensity fire (either naturally occurring or with prescribed burning) and prescribed grazing with proper stocking rates, alternating season of use, and adequate recovery periods following grazing events. A short period of rest, or non-use may be needed following burns. Insect infestation and disease in the ponderosa pine stands can increase the likelihood of natural burns. These fire events can be either of low-intensity or high-intensity. High-intensity fires are likely to transition this plant community (3.2) to the Early Successional State (4.0).
Conservation practices
| Prescribed Burning | |
|---|---|
| Prescribed Grazing |
State 4
Early Successional State
The Early Successional State (4.0) occurs as a result of extreme disturbance that typically removes many or most of the native species normally present on this site. Disturbance in the form of high-intensity fire and heavy to severe grazing over several years are the most typical disturbances. The dominant species present is highly variable, but the common characteristics include high amounts of bare ground, reduced soil aggregate stability, increased runoff and increased erosion (including increased sediment loads in the runoff). Restoration of the ecological processes will be very difficult.
Dominant plant species
-
smooth brome (Bromus inermis), grass
-
Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis), grass
-
Forb, annual (Forb, annual), other herbaceous
-
Forb, introduced (Forb, introduced), other herbaceous
Community 4.1
Annuals and Pioneer Perennial/Bare Ground/Remnant Ponderosa Pine
This plant community developed under high-intensity fire; heavy, continuous season-long grazing (grazing at stocking levels well above sustainable carrying capacity for extended portions of the growing season, and at the same time of year each year, without adequate recovery periods following each grazing occurrence); frequent and severe defoliation; or other heavy disturbances, including livestock or wildlife concentration areas. The potential plant community is made up of approximately 60 to 80 percent grasses and grass-like species, 15 to 35 percent forbs, and 2 to 10 percent shrubs and trees. A wide variety of early successional herbaceous plant species can occupy this site in varying amounts. Sprouting shrubs, possibly sprouting aspen, and remnant ponderosa pine will persist. This plant community is susceptible to invasion of Canada thistle and other non-native species because of the relatively high percent of bare ground. Soil erosion is potentially very high because of the bare ground and shallow rooted herbaceous plant community. Water runoff will increase, and infiltration will decrease due to animal related soil compaction and loss of root mass due to low plant diversity and vigor. This plant community will require significant economic inputs and time to move towards another plant community. This movement is highly variable in its succession. This is due to the loss of diversity (including the loss of the seed bank), within the existing plant community, and the plant communities on adjacent sites.
Transition T1B
State 1 to 2
Long-term no fire and the encroachment and establishment of conifers will transition the Reference State (1.0) to the Conifer State (2.0).
Transition T1C
State 1 to 3
The invasion of non-native cool-season grasses; continuous seasonal grazing (stocking levels above carrying capacity for extended portions of the growing season, and at the same time of year each year, typically beginning early in the growing season); or no use and no fire will transition the Reference State (1.0) to the Native/Invaded State (3.0).
Transition T1A
State 1 to 4
Heavy, continuous seasonal grazing; frequent and severe defoliation; or heavy disturbance areas (e.g., livestock or wildlife concentration areas); will transition the Reference State (1.0) to the Early Successional State (4.0). With high-intensity fire, the Ponderosa Pine-Bur Oak/Shrubs/Roughleaf Ricegrass Plant Community (1.2) can also transition to the Early Successional State (4.0).
Restoration pathway R2A
State 2 to 1
Fire; prescribed burning; or mechanical brush management in conjunction with long-term prescribed grazing may lead the Conifer State (2.0) across a threshold back to the Reference State (1.0). This transition will need to take place before the trees reach maturity and are still susceptible to fire, and reproductive propagules of the perennial grasses are still present.
Conservation practices
| Brush Management | |
|---|---|
| Prescribed Burning | |
| Prescribed Grazing |
Transition T2A
State 2 to 3
Invasion of non-native cool-season grasses; low-intensity fire, prescribed burning, or mechanical brush management to treat conifer encroachment on this site will transition the Conifer State (2.0) to the Native/Invaded State (3.0). Insect and disease in the ponderosa pine stand can create the situation where fire is more likely and potentially more destructive.
Conservation practices
| Brush Management | |
|---|---|
| Prescribed Burning |
Transition T2B
State 2 to 4
High-intensity fire or prescribed burning that remove all or most of the conifer encroachment, and adversely affects the herbaceous understory will likely transition the Conifer State (2.0) to the Early Successional State (4.0). Insect and disease in the ponderosa pine stand can create the situation where fire is more likely and potentially more destructive.
Conservation practices
| Prescribed Burning |
|---|
Restoration pathway T3A
State 3 to 2
Long-term no fire and the encroachment and establishment of conifers will transition the Native/Invaded State (3.0) to the Conifer State (2.0).
Transition T3B
State 3 to 4
Heavy, continuous seasonal grazing; frequent and severe defoliation; or heavy disturbance areas (e.g., livestock or wildlife concentration areas); will transition the Native/Invaded State (3.0) to the Early Successional State (4.0). With high-intensity fire, the Ponderosa Pine-Bur Oak/Shrubs/Roughleaf Ricegrass-Non-Native Cool-Season Grasses Plant Community (3.2) can also transition to the Early Successional State (4.0).
Transition T4A
State 4 to 3
The invasion of non-native cool-season perennial grasses; possibly herbaceous weed control; seeding to native herbaceous species; and long-term prescribed grazing with proper stocking rates, change in season of use, and adequate time for plant recovery will transition the Early Successional State (4.0) towards the Native/Invaded State (3.0). This transition could require significant time and inputs to achieve and, in the end, may not meet management objectives.
Conservation practices
| Prescribed Grazing | |
|---|---|
| Range Planting | |
| Herbaceous Weed Control |
Additional community tables
Table 6. Community 1.1 plant community composition
| Group | Common name | Symbol | Scientific name | Annual production (lb/acre) | Foliar cover (%) | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
Grass/Grasslike
|
||||||
| 1 | Cool-Season Bunchgrass | 450–900 | ||||
| slender wheatgrass | ELTRS | Elymus trachycaulus ssp. subsecundus | 15–150 | – | ||
| slender wheatgrass | ELTR7 | Elymus trachycaulus | 15–150 | – | ||
| roughleaf ricegrass | ORAS | Oryzopsis asperifolia | 15–150 | – | ||
| poverty oatgrass | DASP2 | Danthonia spicata | 15–75 | – | ||
| Richardson's needlegrass | ACRI8 | Achnatherum richardsonii | 0–75 | – | ||
| Columbia needlegrass | ACNE9 | Achnatherum nelsonii | 15–75 | – | ||
| Canada wildrye | ELCA4 | Elymus canadensis | 0–45 | – | ||
| Scribner's rosette grass | DIOLS | Dichanthelium oligosanthes var. scribnerianum | 0–45 | – | ||
| needle and thread | HECOC8 | Hesperostipa comata ssp. comata | 0–30 | – | ||
| 2 | Mid- Warm-Season Grasses | 15–75 | ||||
| little bluestem | SCSC | Schizachyrium scoparium | 0–75 | – | ||
| marsh muhly | MURA | Muhlenbergia racemosa | 0–75 | – | ||
| plains muhly | MUCU3 | Muhlenbergia cuspidata | 0–75 | – | ||
| prairie dropseed | SPHE | Sporobolus heterolepis | 0–75 | – | ||
| 3 | Short Warm-Season Grasses | 30–150 | ||||
| blue grama | BOGR2 | Bouteloua gracilis | 30–150 | – | ||
| 4 | Other Native Grasses | 15–75 | ||||
| Grass, perennial | 2GP | Grass, perennial | 0–60 | – | ||
| Sandberg bluegrass | POSE | Poa secunda | 15–30 | – | ||
| Cusick's bluegrass | POCU3 | Poa cusickii | 15–30 | – | ||
| prairie Junegrass | KOMA | Koeleria macrantha | 0–30 | – | ||
| Rocky Mountain fescue | FESA | Festuca saximontana | 0–15 | – | ||
| big bluestem | ANGE | Andropogon gerardii | 0–15 | – | ||
| 5 | Grass-Likes | 30–150 | ||||
| needleleaf sedge | CADU6 | Carex duriuscula | 15–75 | – | ||
| Richardson's sedge | CARI | Carex richardsonii | 15–75 | – | ||
| sun sedge | CAINH2 | Carex inops ssp. heliophila | 15–75 | – | ||
| Grass-like (not a true grass) | 2GL | Grass-like (not a true grass) | 0–45 | – | ||
| common woodrush | LUMU2 | Luzula multiflora | 0–15 | – | ||
| Hood's sedge | CAHO5 | Carex hoodii | 0–15 | – | ||
| 6 | Non-Native Cool-Season Grasses | 0 | ||||
|
Forb
|
||||||
| 7 | Forbs | 75–150 | ||||
| Forb, perennial | 2FP | Forb, perennial | 15–60 | – | ||
| goldenrod | SOLID | Solidago | 15–45 | – | ||
| pussytoes | ANTEN | Antennaria | 15–45 | – | ||
| western yarrow | ACMIO | Achillea millefolium var. occidentalis | 15–45 | – | ||
| smooth blue aster | SYLA3 | Symphyotrichum laeve | 15–30 | – | ||
| sandwort | ARENA | Arenaria | 15–30 | – | ||
| little larkspur | DEBI | Delphinium bicolor | 0–30 | – | ||
| American vetch | VIAM | Vicia americana | 0–30 | – | ||
| bellflower | CAMPA | Campanula | 0–30 | – | ||
| milkvetch | ASTRA | Astragalus | 0–30 | – | ||
| white sagebrush | ARLU | Artemisia ludoviciana | 15–30 | – | ||
| pasqueflower | PULSA | Pulsatilla | 0–15 | – | ||
| beardtongue | PENST | Penstemon | 0–15 | – | ||
| phlox | PHLOX | Phlox | 0–15 | – | ||
| old man's whiskers | GETR | Geum triflorum | 0–15 | – | ||
| western brackenfern | PTAQ | Pteridium aquilinum | 0–15 | – | ||
| cinquefoil | POTEN | Potentilla | 0–15 | – | ||
| lupine | LUPIN | Lupinus | 0–15 | – | ||
| mountain deathcamas | ZIEL2 | Zigadenus elegans | 0–15 | – | ||
| common starlily | LEMO4 | Leucocrinum montanum | 0–15 | – | ||
| yellow owl's-clover | ORLU2 | Orthocarpus luteus | 0–15 | – | ||
|
Shrub/Vine
|
||||||
| 8 | Shrubs | 75–150 | ||||
| chokecherry | PRVI | Prunus virginiana | 15–60 | – | ||
| creeping barberry | MARE11 | Mahonia repens | 15–60 | – | ||
| common snowberry | SYAL | Symphoricarpos albus | 15–45 | – | ||
| hophornbeam | OSVI | Ostrya virginiana | 0–30 | – | ||
| common juniper | JUCO6 | Juniperus communis | 15–30 | – | ||
| kinnikinnick | ARUV | Arctostaphylos uva-ursi | 15–30 | – | ||
| western poison ivy | TORY | Toxicodendron rydbergii | 0–30 | – | ||
| rose | ROSA5 | Rosa | 0–30 | – | ||
| skunkbush sumac | RHTR | Rhus trilobata | 0–30 | – | ||
| white spirea | SPBE2 | Spiraea betulifolia | 0–30 | – | ||
| Shrub (>.5m) | 2SHRUB | Shrub (>.5m) | 0–30 | – | ||
| serviceberry | AMELA | Amelanchier | 0–15 | – | ||
| grouse whortleberry | VASC | Vaccinium scoparium | 0–15 | – | ||
|
Tree
|
||||||
| 9 | Trees | 30–225 | ||||
| ponderosa pine | PIPO | Pinus ponderosa | 15–150 | – | ||
| bur oak | QUMA2 | Quercus macrocarpa | 0–75 | – | ||
| quaking aspen | POTR5 | Populus tremuloides | 0–75 | – | ||
| Tree | 2TREE | Tree | 0–45 | – | ||
| Rocky Mountain juniper | JUSC2 | Juniperus scopulorum | 0–15 | – | ||
Interpretations
Animal community
Wildlife Interpretations
The Black Hills and Bear Lodge Mountains of South Dakota and Wyoming are truly a forested island in a grassland sea. To regional Native Americans they are “Paha Sapa,” or “hills that are black”, and from a distance, the ponderosa pine-covered slopes do appear like black hills (Larson, 1999).
The Black Hills and Bear Lodge Mountains are located in the drier areas of a northern mixed-grass prairie ecosystem in which sagebrush steppes to the west yield to grassland steppes to the east. Prior to European settlement, MLRA 62 consisted of diverse grassland, shrubland, and forest habitats interspersed with varying densities of depressional instream wetlands and woody riparian corridors. These habitats provided critical life cycle components for many users. Many species of grassland birds, small mammals, reptiles, amphibians, and herds of roaming bison, elk, and pronghorn were among the inhabitants adapted to this semi-arid region. Roaming herbivores, as well as several species of small mammals and insects, were the primary consumers linking the grassland resources to large predators, such as the gray wolf, mountain lion, grizzly bear, and to smaller carnivores, such as the coyote, bobcat, fox, and raptors.
Beaver inhabited surface waters associated with instream wetlands and woody riparian corridors along streams and drainages. Beaver occupation served as a mechanism to maintain water tables along flood plains and valley floors. During pre-European settlement times, the extent of the wet land sites was likely much more widespread and persistent during dry periods; however, excessive trapping and removal since that time has changed the hydrology and limited the extent of these sites while drying former mesic areas throughout the MLRA.
Grazing Interpretations
Production and accessibility of plant communities described in the Sandy ecological site can be highly variable. A complete resource inventory is necessary to document plant composition and production. Accurate estimates of carrying capacity should be calculated using vegetative clipping data, animal preference data, and actual stocking records.
Initial suggested stocking rates should be calculated using a base of 912 lb/acre (air-dry weight) per animal-unit-month (AUM). An AUM is defined as the equivalent amount of forage required by a 1,000-pound cow with or without calf, for one month. Use a 25 percent harvest efficiency of preferred and desirable forage species (refer to USDA-NRCS National Range and Pasture Handbook).
Grazing by domestic livestock is one of the major income-producing industries in the area. Rangeland in this area may provide yearlong forage for livestock. During the dormant period, the forage for livestock likely has insufficient protein to meet livestock requirements. Added protein allows ruminants to better utilize the energy stored in grazed plant materials. A forage quality test should be used to determine the level of supplementation needed.
Hydrological functions
This site is dominated by soils in hydrologic group B. Infiltration and runoff potential for this site varies from low to negligible. Refer to the USDA-NRCS National Engineering Handbook, Part 630, for hydrologic soil groups, runoff quantities, and hydrologic curves.
Recreational uses
This site provides opportunities for hunting, hiking, photography, and bird watching. The wide variety of plants that bloom from spring until fall have an aesthetic value that appeals to visitors.
Wood products
Marketable wood products are not typically present on this site.
Other products
Harvesting the seeds of native plants on this site can provide additional income.
Other information
Revision Notes: Provisional
This provisional ecological site description (ESD) has passed quality control (QC) and quality assurance (QA) to ensure that it meets the 2014 National Ecological Site Handbook (NESH) standards for a provisional ecological site description. This site description should not be considered an Approved ESD, as it contains only the foundational site concepts and requires further data collection, site investigations, and final State-and-Transition Model (STM) reviews before it can be used as an Approved ESD meeting NESH standards.
Site Development and Testing Plan
Future work, as described in an official project plan, is necessary to validate the information in this provisional ecological site description. The plan will include field activities for low-, medium-, and high-intensity sampling, soil correlations, and analysis of the data. Annual field reviews should be done by soil scientists and vegetation specialists. Final field review, peer review, quality control, and quality assurance reviews are required to produce the final document.
Supporting information
Inventory data references
Information presented here has been derived from NRCS clipping data and other inventory data. Field observations from range-trained personnel were also used. Those involved in developing this site include Stan Boltz, range management specialist (RMS), NRCS; Dan Brady, soil scientist (SS), NRCS; Mitch Faulkner, RMS, NRCS; Rick Peterson, RMS, NRCS; Mathew Scott, RMS, USFS; and Jim Westerman, SS, NRCS. All inventory information and data records are compiled within the Rapid City, SD USDA-NRCS Shared “S” network drive.
Other references
Brown, P. M. and C. Hull-Sieg. 1996. Fire history in interior ponderosa pine communities of the Black Hills, South Dakota, USA, Int. J. Wildland Fire 6(3): 97-105.
Carter, J.M., D.G. Driscoll, and J.E. Williamson. 2002. The Black Hills Hydrology Study, U.S. Geological Survey Water-Resources Investigations, USGS Fact Sheet FS-046-02.
Cleland, D.T., J.A. Freeouf, J.E. Keys, G.J. Nowacki, C.A. Carpenter, and W.H McNab. 2007. Ecological subregions: Sections and subsections of the conterminous United States. USDA Forest Service, General Technical Report WO-76D. https://www.fs.fed.us/research/publications/misc/73326-wo-gtr-76d-cleland2007.pdf (accessed 31 January 2019).
Cowardin, L.M., V. Carter, F.C. Golet, and E.T. LaRoe. 1979. Classification of wetlands and deep-water habitats of the United States. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service FWS/OBS-79/31.U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency. 2018. EPA level III and level IV ecoregions of the conterminous United States. https://www.epa.gov/eco-research/level-iii-and-iv-ecoregions- conterminous-united-states (accessed 26 April 2018).
Froiland S.G. and R.R. Weedon. 1990. Natural history of the Black Hills and Badlands. Center for Western Studies, Augustana College, Sioux Falls SD.
Gartner, F. R. and W. W. Thompson. 1972. Fire in the Black Hills forest-grass ecotone, South Dakota Agricultural Experiment Station, Journal Series No 1115.
Hall, J. S.; Marriott, J. H.; Perot, J. K. 2002. Ecological Conservation in the Black Hills. Minneapolis, MN: The Nature Conservancy.
High Plains Regional Climate Center, University of Nebraska. 2018. http://www.hprcc.unl.edu/ (accessed 6 April 2018).
Hoffman, George R. and, Robert R. Alexander. 1987. Forest vegetation of the Black Hills National Forest of South Dakota and Wyoming: a habitat type classification. Res. Pap. RM-276. USDA-USFS, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station.
Larson, Gary E. and James R. Johnson. 1999. Plants of the Black Hills and Bear Lodge Mountains. South Dakota State University, College of Agriculture and Biological Sciences and Agriculture Experiment Station, Bulletin 732, Brookings, SD.
McIntosh, A.C. 1949. A botanical survey of the Black Hills of South Dakota. Black Hills Engineer. 28 (4): 3-75.
Parrish, J. B., D. J. Herman, D. J. Reyher, and F. R. Gartner. 1996. A Century of change in the Black Hills and riparian ecosystems. Open Prairie: Bulletins 726, Agriculture Experiment Station, South Dakota State University. https://openprairie.sdstate.edu/agexperimentsta_bulletins/726
Shepperd, W. D. and M. A. Battaglia. 2002. Ecology, silviculture, and management of Black Hills ponderosa pine. Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-97. Fort Collins, CO: US Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station. 112 p.
Toledo, D., M. Sanderson, K. Spaeth, J. Hendrickson, and J. Printz. 2014. Extent of Kentucky bluegrass and its effect on native plant species diversity and ecosystem services in the Northern Great Plains of the United States. Invasive Plant Science and Management. 7(4):543–522. Weed Science Society of America.
U.S. Department of Agriculture, U.S. Forest Service. 2017. Black Hills Resilient Landscape Project, Draft Environmental Impact Statement.
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service. 2019. Electronic field office technical guide. https://efotg.sc.egov.usda.gov (accessed 24 July 2019).
Soil Survey Staff. 2019. Official soil series descriptions. USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service. https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detail/soils/home/?cid=nrcs142p2_053587 (accessed 30 July 2019).
Soil Survey Staff. 2019. Web Soil Survey. USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service. https://websoilsurvey.sc.egov.usda.gov/App/WebSoilSurvey.aspx (accessed 30 July 2019).
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service. 2006. Land resource regions and major land resource areas of the United States, the Caribbean, and the Pacific Basin. Agriculture Handbook 296. https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/nrcs142p2_050898.pdf (accessed 27 January 2018).
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service. 2014. National ecological site handbook, 1st ed. https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detail/soils/ref/?cid=nrcseprd1291232 (accessed 27 January 2018).
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service. 2012. National engineering handbook, part 630. Hydrology chapters from e-Directives. https://directives.sc.egov.usda.gov/viewerFS.aspx?hid=21422 (accessed 17 January 2018).
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service. 2018. Climate data. National Water and Climate Center. http://www.wcc.nrcs.usda.gov/ (accessed 2 December 2018).
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service. 1997. National range and pasture handbook, rev. 1, 2003. https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/stelprdb1043055.pdf (accessed 7 January 2018).
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service. 2019. National Soil Information System, Information Technology Center. http://nasis.nrcs.usda.gov (accessed 30 July 2019).
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service. 2019. PLANTS database. National Plant Data Team, Greensboro, NC. http://plants.usda.gov (accessed 30 July 2019).
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service. 2007. National engineering handbook, part 654. Rosgen Stream Classification Technique – Supplemental Materials, Technical Supplement 3E. https://directives.sc.egov.usda.gov/OpenNonWebContent.aspx?content=17833.wba (accessed 4 March 2019).
Wrage, K.J. 1994. The effects of ponderosa pine on soil moisture, precipitation, and understory vegetation in the Black Hills of South Dakota. 158 p. Thesis.
Contributors
Rick L. Peterson
Mitch D. Faulkner
James Westerman
Stan C. Boltz
Approval
Suzanne Mayne-Kinney, 2/06/2025
Acknowledgments
This ecological site description was developed by Rick L. Peterson on May 21, 2020.
Nondiscrimination Statement
In accordance with Federal civil rights law and U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) civil rights regulations and policies, the USDA, its Agencies, offices, and employees, and institutions participating in or administering USDA programs are prohibited from discriminating based on race, color, national origin, religion, sex, gender identity (including gender expression), sexual orientation, disability, age, marital status, family/parental status, income derived from a public assistance program, political beliefs, or reprisal or retaliation for prior civil rights activity, in any program or activity conducted or funded by USDA (not all bases apply to all programs). Remedies and complaint filing deadlines vary by program or incident.
Persons with disabilities who require alternative means of communication for program information (e.g., Braille, large print, audiotape, American Sign Language, etc.) should contact the responsible Agency or USDA's TARGET Center at (202) 720-2600 (voice and TTY) or contact USDA through the Federal Relay Service at (800) 877-8339. Additionally, program information may be made available in languages other than English.
To file a program discrimination complaint, complete the USDA Program Discrimination Complaint Form, AD-3027, available online at https://www.ascr.usda.gov/filing-program-discrimination-complaint-usda-customer and at any USDA office, or write a letter addressed to USDA and provide in the letter all of the information requested in the form. To request a copy of the complaint form, call (866) 632-9992. Submit your completed form or letter to USDA by:
(1) mail: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Office of the Assistant Secretary for Civil Rights, 1400 Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, D.C. 20250-9410;
(2) fax: (202) 690-7442; or
(3) email: program.intake@usda.gov.
USDA is an equal opportunity provider, employer, and lender.
Rangeland health reference sheet
Interpreting Indicators of Rangeland Health is a qualitative assessment protocol used to determine ecosystem condition based on benchmark characteristics described in the Reference Sheet. A suite of 17 (or more) indicators are typically considered in an assessment. The ecological site(s) representative of an assessment location must be known prior to applying the protocol and must be verified based on soils and climate. Current plant community cannot be used to identify the ecological site.
| Author(s)/participant(s) | |
|---|---|
| Contact for lead author | |
| Date | 02/06/2025 |
| Approved by | Suzanne Mayne-Kinney |
| Approval date | |
| Composition (Indicators 10 and 12) based on | Annual Production |
Indicators
-
Number and extent of rills:
-
Presence of water flow patterns:
-
Number and height of erosional pedestals or terracettes:
-
Bare ground from Ecological Site Description or other studies (rock, litter, lichen, moss, plant canopy are not bare ground):
-
Number of gullies and erosion associated with gullies:
-
Extent of wind scoured, blowouts and/or depositional areas:
-
Amount of litter movement (describe size and distance expected to travel):
-
Soil surface (top few mm) resistance to erosion (stability values are averages - most sites will show a range of values):
-
Soil surface structure and SOM content (include type of structure and A-horizon color and thickness):
-
Effect of community phase composition (relative proportion of different functional groups) and spatial distribution on infiltration and runoff:
-
Presence and thickness of compaction layer (usually none; describe soil profile features which may be mistaken for compaction on this site):
-
Functional/Structural Groups (list in order of descending dominance by above-ground annual-production or live foliar cover using symbols: >>, >, = to indicate much greater than, greater than, and equal to):
Dominant:
Sub-dominant:
Other:
Additional:
-
Amount of plant mortality and decadence (include which functional groups are expected to show mortality or decadence):
-
Average percent litter cover (%) and depth ( in):
-
Expected annual annual-production (this is TOTAL above-ground annual-production, not just forage annual-production):
-
Potential invasive (including noxious) species (native and non-native). List species which BOTH characterize degraded states and have the potential to become a dominant or co-dominant species on the ecological site if their future establishment and growth is not actively controlled by management interventions. Species that become dominant for only one to several years (e.g., short-term response to drought or wildfire) are not invasive plants. Note that unlike other indicators, we are describing what is NOT expected in the reference state for the ecological site:
-
Perennial plant reproductive capability:
Print Options
Sections
Font
Other
The Ecosystem Dynamics Interpretive Tool is an information system framework developed by the USDA-ARS Jornada Experimental Range, USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service, and New Mexico State University.
Click on box and path labels to scroll to the respective text.