Natural Resources
Conservation Service

Ecological site R062XA010SD

Loamy - North

Last updated: 7/31/2024
Accessed: 12/30/2024

Home / Esd catalog / MLRA 062X / Ecological site R062XA010SD

USC

Metric

General information

Provisional. A provisional ecological site description has undergone quality control and quality assurance review. It contains a working state and transition model and enough information to identify the ecological site.

Click to explore map

Figure 1. Mapped extent

Areas shown in blue indicate the maximum mapped extent of this ecological site. Other ecological sites likely occur within the highlighted areas. It is also possible for this ecological site to occur outside of highlighted areas if detailed soil survey has not been completed or recently updated.

MLRA notes

Major Land Resource Area (MLRA): 062X–Black Hills

The Black Hills (MLRA 62) is a unique, low lying mountain range situated in the midst of a mixed short and mid-grass prairie. It is a true “Island in the Plains,” as it has geophysical and biological attributes that are unlike the surrounding area. The Black Hills have strong floristic ties to four of the North American biomes: Cordilleran (Rocky Mountain) Forest, Northern Coniferous Forest, Eastern Deciduous Forest, and Grasslands.

MLRA 62 is approximately 3,040 square miles in size; 74 percent is located in South Dakota, and 26 percent is in Wyoming. The towns of Lead, Deadwood, Hill City, and Custer, South Dakota, are in this area. U.S. Highways 16 and 385 cross the MLRA. The Black Hills National Forest, Custer State Park, Mt. Rushmore National Monument, Wind Cave National Park, and Jewel Cave National Monument are located in this MLRA.

This area forms the core of the Black Hills and the Bear Lodge Mountains where the elevation generally ranges between 3,600 to 6,565 feet, however, Black Elk Peak (formerly Harney Peak) rises to 7,242 feet. The slopes vary from moderately sloping on some of the high plateaus to very steeply sloping along drainageways and on peaks and ridges. Narrow valleys generally are gently sloping to strongly sloping.

The Black Hills uplift is the product of the Laramide mountain-building episodes that produced most of the ranges in the Rocky Mountains. Uplift began near the end of the Cretaceous period, 65 million years ago and ended by 35 million years ago (Froiland, 1990). The core of the Black Hills is a plutonic mass of granite with steeply dipping metamorphic rocks, primarily slate and schist, that directly surrounds the granite core. A plateau of Mississippian limestone surrounds the igneous and metamorphic rock core. The Madison limestone is broken around the outer edges of the uplifted area. The Permian Minnekahta limestone forms the outermost boundary of the area. Many other tilted sandstone, shale, and limestone units are exposed like a bathtub ring inside the steeply dipping Madison limestone.

The dominant soil orders in this MLRA are Alfisols (forest soils) and Mollisols (grassland soils). The soils in the area have a frigid or cryic soil temperature regime, a udic or ustic soil moisture regime, and mixed, micaceous, or smectitic mineralogy. They are shallow to very deep, generally are well drained, and are loamy in texture.

The Black Hills MLRA supports open to dense forest vegetation. Ponderosa pine is the dominant species across the Black Hills. White spruce grows at the higher elevations and along the major drainageways. Bur oak is found intermixed with pine in the northern and eastern fringes of the Black Hills, and Rocky Mountain juniper is most common in the southern portion of the Black Hills. Aspen and paper birch are minor components found throughout the Black Hills. Prairie dropseed, roughleaf ricegrass, green needlegrass, poverty oatgrass, Richardson’s needlegrass, slender wheatgrass, and Canada wildrye are the most common native grasses under open forest stands. The most common native shrubs are bearberry, common juniper, grouse whortleberry, poison ivy, and Saskatoon serviceberry.

MLRA 62 land ownership is approximately 47 percent private and 53 percent federal. Rangeland and forestland are split almost equally between private and federal ownership (47 percent each). Minor areas of land are privately owned cropland and urban development. The forestland in this area is used mainly for timber production, recreation, and grazing.

The major resource concerns are soil erosion and surface compaction caused by logging, mining, wildfires, grazing, and urban expansion. The quality of both ground and surface water is another concern, especially in the northern part of the Black Hills. The primary cause for concern is contamination from mine waste and septic systems in areas of rural development and urban expansion (USDA-NRCS, 2006: Ag Handbook 296).

LRU notes

For development of ecological sites, MLRA 62 is divided into three Land Resource Units (LRUs) or physiographic zones (A, B, C, and Y). Each LRU has a set of ecological sites that represents these zones.

The LRU is identified in the Ecological Site ID: R062XY000SD; “062X” identifies the MLRA, and the next letter “Y” identifies the LRU. Note: The organization of Ecological Site IDs will likely change in the future.

The North, LRU-A includes the northern Black Hills and Bear Lodge Mountains. It receives between 22 and 30 inches of annual precipitation and has a frigid soil temperature regime.

The High Central, LRU-B includes the high elevation (> 6,200 feet) central core of the Black Hills, which receives between 25 to 35 inches of annual precipitation and has a cryic soil temperature regime.

The South, LRU-C includes the southern portion of the Black Hills and receives between 17 to 21 inches of annual precipitation and has a frigid soil temperature regime.

One additional grouping of ecological sites that are common to the entire MLRA are designated with a “Y” in the ecological site ID.

Classification relationships

USDA
Land Resource Region G—Western Great Plains Range and Irrigated Region:
Major Land Resource Area (MLRA) 62—Black Hills

US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
Level IV Ecoregions of the Conterminous United States:
Black Hills Plateau—17b
Black Hills Core Highlands—17c

USDA Forest Service
Ecological Subregions: Sections and Subsections of Conterminous United States:
Black Hills Coniferous Forest Province—M334:
Black Hills Section—334A
Black Hills Limestone Plateau-Core Highlands Subsection—M334Ab

Ecological site concept

The Loamy - North ecological site can be found on upland landscapes or old stream terraces in the northern portion of the Black Hills and Bear Lodge Mountains (LRU-A).

This site does not receive additional moisture from runoff or overflow. Slopes are typically 0 to 15 percent but can range up to 25 percent. Soils are moderately deep to very deep (> 20 inches in depth) and formed in alluvium and residuum from limestone and sandstone. The surface layers textures are loam or silt loam that are typically 5 to 6 inches thick. Most soils have calcium carbonate in the profile, but it is typically greater than 12 inches below the surface. There is no restrictive layer which impede water movement and root penetration.

Vegetation in the Reference State (1.0) consists of dominant cool-season grasses and subdominant warm-season grasses. Slender and bearded wheatgrass, and needlegrasses are the major cool-season grasses. Major warm-season grasses include prairie dropseed. Big and little bluestem are commonly present but will mostly play a minor role in the plant community. Forbs are diverse and shrubs will include western snowberry and leadplant. This site is susceptible to pine encroachment and invasion of non-native cool-season grasses.

Associated sites

R062XA032SD	Channery Loam - North The Channery Loam-North ecological site is often located adjacent to the Loamy-North site. The Channery Loamy-North site has deep soils with up to 35 percent rock in the soil profile and lower vegetative production than the Loamy-North ecological site.
R062XA024SD	Shallow Loamy - North The Shallow Loamy-North ecological site can be located adjacent to the Loamy-North ecological site. The Shallow Loamy-North will have shallow soils (10-20” in depth), and lower vegetative production than the Loamy-North site.
R062XY043SD	Valley Loam The Valley Loam ecological site can occur in swales and drainageways adjacent to or bisecting the Loamy-North ecological site. The Valley Loam sites will have deep to very deep soils, more tall warm-season grasses, and higher vegetative production than the Loamy-North site.
F062XB052SD	Highland Hills Pine Forest(0-15% Slope) The Mod Steep to Steep Low Mountain Slopes forest ecological site will be found adjacent to the Loamy-North ecological site. The forest ecological site will have ponderosa pine as the dominant vegetation. Soil will have an “O” horizon of decomposing forest litter, a light-colored leached “E” horizon, and a “Bt” horizon of accumulated translocated clays.

Similar sites

R062XA024SD	Shallow Loamy - North The Shallow Loamy-North ecological site will have shallow soil depths (10-20 inches in depth) and less and lower vegetative production than the Loamy-North ecological site.
R062XY043SD	Valley Loam The Valley Loam ecological site is found in swales and drainageways adjacent to or bisecting the Loamy-North ecological site. The plant community can look similar but with more warm-season grasses and higher vegetative production than the Loamy-North ecological site.

R062XA024SD

Shallow Loamy - North

The Shallow Loamy-North ecological site will have shallow soil depths (10-20 inches in depth) and less and lower vegetative production than the Loamy-North ecological site.

R062XY043SD

Valley Loam

The Valley Loam ecological site is found in swales and drainageways adjacent to or bisecting the Loamy-North ecological site. The plant community can look similar but with more warm-season grasses and higher vegetative production than the Loamy-North ecological site.

Table 1. Dominant plant species

Tree	Not specified
Shrub	(1) Symphoricarpos occidentalis
Herbaceous	(1) Nassella viridula (2) Elymus trachycaulus

Download full description

Physiographic features

The Loamy - North ecological site occurs on nearly level to gently sloping footslopes and backslopes in the Black Hills.

Table 2. Representative physiographic features

Landforms	(1) Mountains > Fan (2) Mountains > Terrace (3) Mountains > Mountain slope
Runoff class	Very low to high
Flooding frequency	None
Ponding frequency	None
Elevation	3,600 – 6,200 ft
Slope	25%
Water table depth	80 in
Aspect	Aspect is not a significant factor

Climatic features

MLRA 62 is in a microclimate caused by the influence of increased elevation which leads to increased precipitation, moderate air temperature, and lower wind velocities as compared to the surrounding Great Plains. In general, the Black Hills climate is a continental type, cold in the winter and hot in the summer.

Annual precipitation in MLRA 62 typically increases with elevation and decreases from west to east and from north to south. The average annual precipitation range for MLRA 62 is 17 to 35 inches. Most of the rainfall occurs as frontal storms early in the growing season, in May and June. Some high-intensity, convective thunderstorms occur in July and August. Precipitation in the winter occurs mostly as snow. Twenty to forty percent of the annual precipitation falls as snow. The annual average snowfall ranges from 23 inches at the lower elevations in the south, to 54 inches in the higher elevations of the central core of the Black Hills.

The average annual temperature ranges from 36°F to 48°F. January is the coldest month, with an average temperature of 22°F in the higher elevation of the central core, and 25°F in the southern part of MLRA 62. July is the warmest month, with an average daily temperature of 67°F in the central core, and 73°F in the southern part of this MLRA. The frost-free period ranges from 129 to 168 days. It is shortest at higher elevations and in the northwestern part of the MLRA. Hourly winds are estimated to average about 11 miles per hour (mph) annually.

Growth of cool-season plants begins in April, slowing or ceasing growth by mid-August. Warm-season plants begin growth in May and continue to mid-September. Regrowth of cool-season plants may occur in September and October, depending upon soil moisture availability.

The average annual precipitation range for LRU-A (Northern Black Hills and Bear Lodge Mountains) is 22 to 30 inches.

Table 3. Representative climatic features

Frost-free period (characteristic range)	51-85 days
Freeze-free period (characteristic range)	93-121 days
Precipitation total (characteristic range)	20-29 in
Frost-free period (actual range)	25-92 days
Freeze-free period (actual range)	64-125 days
Precipitation total (actual range)	19-30 in
Frost-free period (average)	64 days
Freeze-free period (average)	102 days
Precipitation total (average)	23 in

Characteristic range

Actual range

Bar

Line

Figure 2. Monthly precipitation range

Characteristic range

Actual range

Bar

Line

Figure 3. Monthly minimum temperature range

Characteristic range

Actual range

Bar

Line

Figure 4. Monthly maximum temperature range

Bar

Line

Figure 5. Monthly average minimum and maximum temperature

Figure 6. Annual precipitation pattern

Figure 7. Annual average temperature pattern

Climate stations used

(1) LEAD [USC00394834], Lead, SD
(2) PACTOLA DAM [USC00396427], Rapid City, SD
(3) CUSTER CO AP [USW00094032], Custer, SD
(4) DEADWOOD 2NE [USC00392209], Whitewood, SD
(5) DEERFIELD 3 SE [USC00392231], Hill City, SD
(6) HILL CITY [USC00393868], Hill City, SD

Soil features

Soils common to the Loamy - North ecological site are moderately deep to very deep and well drained. The surface layer is typically 5 to 6 inches thick and can range up to 20 inches.
The soils are formed in residuum and alluvium weathered from limestone and sandstone. Surface textures are typically loam and slit loam. Most soil have calcium carbonate in the profile, but they are typically leached to a depth greater than 12 inches. There should not be a restrictive layer that impedes water movement or root penetration. The slopes range from 0 to 15 percent but can range up to 25 percent.

The major soil correlated to the Loamy–North ecological site includes, Bullflat, Gurney, Norkool, Reicess, and Sugakool. Most of these soils will also occur in southern portion of the MLRA (LRU-C).

Water erosion is the primary hazard on this site. Erosion is normally minimal on slopes less than 6 percent and occurs primarily in the form of sheet erosion when present. Sheet and rill erosion can occur on linear surfaces where slopes range from 6 to about 10 percent. On non- linear (undulating) surfaces, rill erosion is dominant. On slopes greater than about 15 percent, rill erosion can be present on all types of surfaces. Rill erosion can often morph into gully erosion in areas where flow paths concentrate into one on disturbed sites.

Loss of 50 percent or more of the surface layer of the soils on this site can result in a shift in species composition and/or production. Erosion on this site will tend to occur as rills around surface fragments and in areas of concentrated flow.

More information can be found in the various soil survey reports. Contact the local USDA Service Center for soil survey reports that include more detail specific to your area of interest, or use the internet to access USDA’s Web Soil Survey.

Table 4. Representative soil features

Parent material	(1) Alluvium – limestone and sandstone (2) Residuum – limestone and sandstone
Surface texture	(1) Loam (2) Silt loam
Family particle size	(1) Loamy
Drainage class	Well drained
Permeability class	Moderately slow to moderate
Soil depth	20 – 60 in
Surface fragment cover <=3"	3%
Surface fragment cover >3"	1%
Available water capacity (0-40in)	3 – 12 in
Calcium carbonate equivalent (0-40in)	25%
Electrical conductivity (0-40in)	4 mmhos/cm
Sodium adsorption ratio (0-40in)	3
Soil reaction (1:1 water) (0-40in)	5.6 – 7.8
Subsurface fragment volume <=3" (Depth not specified)	25%
Subsurface fragment volume >3" (Depth not specified)	5%

Ecological dynamics

The Loamy - North ecological site evolved under Black Hills climatic conditions; light to severe grazing by bison, elk, insects, and small mammals; sporadic, natural or human-caused wildfire (often of light intensities); and other biotic and abiotic factors that typically influence soil and site development. Changes occur in the plant communities due to short-term weather variations, effects of native and exotic plant and animal species, and management actions. Severe disturbances, such as periods of well below-average precipitation, severe defoliation, excessive haying, or non-use and no fire can cause significant shifts in plant communities and species composition.

The natural fire regime maintained this site as a grassland and the plant communities were free of pine encroachment and invasion of non-native cool-season grasses. Fire, or the lack of fire, grazing, haying, drought, and the introduction of non-native cool-season grasses are major drivers that shape this site as well as adjacent ecological sites.

Unfortunately, the Reference State (1.0) will be difficult to find in MLRA 62 because of the invasion and expansion of non-native cool-season grass. For all practical purposes, plant communities within the Native/Invaded State (2.0) will be most representative of current plant communities under sustainable grazing management and periodic fire.

Continuous season-long stocking (e.g., typically the full growing season, May through October) without change in season of use or adequate recovery periods following grazing events will cause departure from the Cool-season bunchgrass-Dropseeds/Shrubs plant community (2.1). Wheatgrasses and needlegrass will increase initially and then begin to decrease. Prairie dropseed will decrease in frequency and production of forbs and non-native cool-season grasses will increase. Forbs can play a significant role in cover and productivity in this state.

Non-use, light stocking or seasonal grazing, no fire, or excessive haying can result in an invaded state where greater than 30% of the plant species composition is comprised of non-native cool-season grasses and forbs. Native grasses are rare.

Long-term no fire can result in significant encroachment of conifer trees and lead to plant communities dominated by ponderosa pine.

Heavy continuous season-long grazing, frequent and severe defoliation by wildlife or livestock, heavy disturbance to plants and soil can result in the Highly Degraded State (5.0). This state is dominated by bluegrasses and invasive forbs. Noxious weeds may often be found in this state.

Interpretations are primarily based on the Cool-season bunchgrass-Dropseeds/Shrubs plant community (1.1). It has been determined by study of rangeland relic areas, areas protected from excessive disturbance, and areas under long-term rotational grazing regimes. Trends in plant community dynamics ranging from heavily grazed to lightly grazed areas, seasonal use pastures, and historical accounts have also been used. Plant community phases, states, transitional pathways, and thresholds have been determined through similar studies and experience.

The following is a State-and-Transition diagram that illustrates the common plant communities that can occur on the site and the transition pathways between communities. The ecological processes will be discussed in more detail in the plant community descriptions following the diagram.

State and transition model

Custom diagram

Standard diagram

More interactive model formats are also available. View Interactive Models

More interactive model formats are also available. View Interactive Models
Click on state and transition labels to scroll to the respective text

Ecosystem states

1. Reference

2. Native/Introduced State

3. Conifer State

4. Invaded State

5. Highly Degraded State

T1A	-	• Invasion and expansion of non-native cool-season grasses • Continuous season-long grazing • Excessive haying • Non-use • No fire
T1B	-	•Encroachment by ponderosa pine •No fire
T2A	-	•No Fire •Encroachment by ponderosa pine
T2B	-	•Non-use/Light stocking •Continuous season-long grazing •Seasonal grazing •Excessive haying •No Fire
R3A	-	•Prescribed burning •Brush management •Forest stand improvement •Fire
R3B	-	•Prescribed burning •Prescribed grazing •Fire •Forest stand improvement
T3A	-	• Low to medium-intensity wildfire • Prescribed burning • Brush management • Prescribed grazing
R4A	-	•Prescribed burn •Seeding •Long-term prescribed grazing •Herbaceous weed control
R4B	-	•Encroachment •No Fire
T4A	-	•Heavy continuous season-long grazing •Frequent severe defoliation •Heavy disturbance •Invasion by non-native species
R5A	-	•Removal of disturbance •Long-term prescribed grazing •Herbaceous weed control

State 1 submodel, plant communities

1.1. Cool-season bunchgrasses-Dropseeds/Shrubs

1.2. Forbs-Cool-season bunchgrasses-Dropseeds/Shrubs

1.3. Native Grasses/Shrubs/Forbs/Conifers (<5%)

1.1A	-	•Continuous season-long grazing •Heavy continuous grazing
1.2A	-	•Long-term prescribed grazing
1.3A	-	•Long-term prescribed grazing •Fire •Prescribed burn

State 2 submodel, plant communities

2.1. Cool-season bunchgrasses-Dropseeds Bluegrass/Forbs/Shrubs

2.2. Forbs-Cool-season bunchgrasses-Dropseeds/Non-native cool-season grasses/Shrubs

2.1A	-	• Continuous season-long stocking • Continuous early season stocking • Excessive haying • Extended periods of no use and no fire
2.2A	-	• Prescribed grazing • Prescribed burning

State 1
Reference

The Reference State represents what is believed to show the natural range of variability that dominated the dynamics of the ecological site prior to European settlement. This site in the Reference State (1.0) is dominated by cool-season grasses, with warm-season grasses being subdominant. Shrubs and forbs may represent subdominant or minor parts of the plant community. In pre-European times, the primary disturbance mechanisms for this site in the reference condition included occasional fire and grazing by large ungulates. Timing of fires and grazing coupled with weather events dictated the dynamics that occurred within the natural range of variability. Taller cool- and warm-season grasses would have declined and a corresponding increase in forbs and shrubs would have occurred. Today, a similar state may be difficult to find without some invasion of non-native cool-season grasses, most commonly Kentucky bluegrass. Near reference conditions can be found on areas that are properly managed with grazing and/or prescribed burning, and sometimes on areas receiving occasional short periods of rest.

Characteristics and indicators. The Reference State (1.0) is dominated by cool-season bunchgrasses and subdominant warm-season mid-statured grasses. The Reference State is very susceptible to invasion of non-native cool-season grasses and the encroachment of ponderosa pine.

Resilience management. Management strategies to sustain the Reference State (1.0) include, setting proper stocking rates, monitoring utilization of key species, providing adequate time for plant recovery following grazing events or other disturbance events (e.g. fire, drought, hailstorms), and maintaining soil and site stability. The use of prescribed burning may be effective at limiting or minimizing the invasion and establishment of non-native cool-season grasses and will effectively treat encroachment of ponderosa pine.

Dominant plant species

western snowberry (Symphoricarpos occidentalis), shrub
prairie rose (Rosa arkansana), shrub
green needlegrass (Nassella viridula), grass
sideoats grama (Bouteloua curtipendula), grass
prairie dropseed (Sporobolus heterolepis), grass
slender wheatgrass (Elymus trachycaulus), grass
western wheatgrass (Pascopyrum smithii), grass
American vetch (Vicia americana), other herbaceous
white sagebrush (Artemisia ludoviciana), other herbaceous
dotted blazing star (Liatris punctata), other herbaceous
goldenrod (Solidago), other herbaceous
silverleaf Indian breadroot (Pediomelum argophyllum), other herbaceous
cinquefoil (Potentilla), other herbaceous

Community 1.1
Cool-season bunchgrasses-Dropseeds/Shrubs

Figure 8. Loamy-North R062XA010SD PCP-1.1

Interpretations are based primarily on the Cool-season bunchgrasses-Dropseeds/Shrubs Plant Community. This is also considered to be the Reference Plant Community (1.1). The potential vegetation is about 80 percent grasses or grass-like plants, 10 percent forbs, 5 percent shrubs and 0 to 2 percent trees. The community is dominated by cool-season grasses with warm-season grasses being subdominant. The major grasses include slender wheatgrass, green needlegrass, prairie dropseed, western wheatgrass, and sideoats grama. Other grasses include little bluestem, needle and thread, porcupine grass, and big bluestem. Common forbs include, American vetch, white sagebrush (cudweed sagewort) goldenrod, scurfpeas, cinquefoils (potentilla), and western yarrow. Western snowberry and prairie rose are common shrubs. Scattered ponderosa pine may also be present. This plant community is resilient and well adapted to the Northern Great Plains climatic conditions. The diversity in plant species allows for high drought tolerance. This is a sustainable plant community in regard to site and soil stability, watershed function, and biologic integrity.

Dominant plant species

ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa), tree
western snowberry (Symphoricarpos occidentalis), shrub
prairie rose (Rosa arkansana), shrub
western wheatgrass (Pascopyrum smithii), grass
green needlegrass (Nassella viridula), grass
needle and thread (Hesperostipa comata ssp. comata), grass
sideoats grama (Bouteloua curtipendula), grass
slender wheatgrass (Elymus trachycaulus), grass
prairie dropseed (Sporobolus heterolepis), grass
sedge (Carex), grass
American vetch (Vicia americana), other herbaceous
white sagebrush (Artemisia ludoviciana), other herbaceous
dotted blazing star (Liatris punctata), other herbaceous
goldenrod (Solidago), other herbaceous
prairie clover (Dalea), other herbaceous
silverleaf Indian breadroot (Pediomelum argophyllum), other herbaceous
white prairie aster (Symphyotrichum falcatum), other herbaceous
cinquefoil (Potentilla), other herbaceous

Figure 9. Annual production by plant type (representative values) or group (midpoint values)

Table 5. Annual production by plant type

Plant type	Low (lb/acre)	Representative value (lb/acre)	High (lb/acre)
Grass/Grasslike	1910	2445	2910
Forb	145	300	500
Shrub/Vine	145	225	325
Tree	0	30	65
Total	2200	3000	3800

Figure 10. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). SD6202, Black Hills, cool-season dominant, warm-season sub-dominant. Cool-season dominant, warm-season sub-dominant.

Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun	Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec
J	F	M	A	M	J	J	A	S	O	N	D
0	0	3	10	23	34	15	6	5	4	0	0

Community 1.2
Forbs-Cool-season bunchgrasses-Dropseeds/Shrubs

Interpretations are based primarily on the Forbs-Cool-season bunchgrasses-Dropseeds/Shrubs plant community (1.2) The potential vegetation is about 75 percent grasses or grasslike plants, 15 to 20 percent forbs, 5 to 10 percent shrubs, and 0 to 2 percent trees. This community is dominated by cool-season grasses with warm-season grasses being subdominant. The major grasses include slender wheatgrass, green needlegrass, prairie dropseed, and sideoats grama. Forbs such as cinquefoils, goldenrods, western yarrow, white sagebrush (cudweed sagewort), and scurfpeas have become subdominant. Ponderosa pine may be scattered across this site.

Resilience management. Management strategies to sustain this plant community include setting proper stocking rates, changing livestock grazing use periods, and ensuring soil and site stability. Because of the adaptability and persistence of non-native grass species, the Forbs-Cool-season bunchgrasses-Dropseeds/Shrubs plant community (1.2) may be difficult to locate.

Dominant plant species

ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa), tree
western snowberry (Symphoricarpos occidentalis), shrub
rose (Rosa), shrub
prairie dropseed (Sporobolus heterolepis), grass
green needlegrass (Nassella viridula), grass
sideoats grama (Bouteloua curtipendula), grass
slender wheatgrass (Elymus trachycaulus), grass
cinquefoil (Potentilla), other herbaceous
goldenrod (Solidago), other herbaceous
common yarrow (Achillea millefolium), other herbaceous
white sagebrush (Artemisia ludoviciana), other herbaceous
scurfpea (Psoralidium), other herbaceous

Community 1.3
Native Grasses/Shrubs/Forbs/Conifers (<5%)

Interpretations are based primarily on the Native Grasses/Shrubs/Forbs/Conifers (<5%) plant community (1.3). The potential vegetation is about 75 percent grasses or grass-like plants, 10 to 15% forbs, 5 to 10 percent shrubs, and 5% or less conifers. This community is dominated by cool-season grasses with warm-season grasses being subdominant. The major grasses include slender wheatgrass, green needlegrass, prairie dropseed, and sideoats grama. Forbs such as cinquefoils, goldenrods, western yarrow, white sagebrush (cudweed sagewort), and scurfpeas have become subdominant. Ponderosa pine is somewhat common on this site, but represents less than 5 percent of the plant community.

Resilience management. Management strategies to sustain this plant community include setting proper stocking rates, changing livestock grazing use periods, and ensuring soil and site stability. Limiting the occurrence of fire will also sustain this plant community. Because of the adaptability and persistence of non-native grass species, the Native Grasses/Shrubs/Forbs/Conifers (<5%) plant community may be difficult to locate.

Dominant plant species

ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa), tree
western snowberry (Symphoricarpos occidentalis), shrub
slender wheatgrass (Elymus trachycaulus), grass
green needlegrass (Nassella viridula), grass
prairie dropseed (Sporobolus heterolepis), grass
sideoats grama (Bouteloua curtipendula), grass
western wheatgrass (Pascopyrum smithii), grass
cinquefoil (Potentilla), other herbaceous
goldenrod (Solidago), other herbaceous
western yarrow (Achillea millefolium var. occidentalis), other herbaceous
white sagebrush (Artemisia ludoviciana), other herbaceous
scurfpea (Psoralidium), other herbaceous

Pathway 1.1A
Community 1.1 to 1.2

•Heavy continuous season-long grazing including repeated grazing at moderate to moderately heavy stocking levels, during the typical growing season (May through October), without changing season of use or adequate recovery periods following grazing events. •Heavy continuous grazing for extended periods of time during the growing season (usually greater than one month).

Pathway 1.2A
Community 1.2 to 1.1

• Long-term prescribed grazing including proper stocking rates, change in season of use, and adequate time for plant recovery following grazing events.

Pathway 1.2B
Community 1.2 to 1.3

•Seasonal grazing especially spring and early summer grazing (May and June) without change in season of use for successive years. •Non-use or light stocking rates that result in herbaceous litter accumulation and reduced herbaceous cover. Excessive litter buildup can create microsites with higher soil moisture that extends into the warmer summer season. The extra soil moisture is optimal for pine germination and establishment. •Eliminating fire results in the establishment and continued growth of pine trees. Small pine trees are commonly eliminated during natural fire events that burn through the herbaceous understory.

Pathway 1.3A
Community 1.3 to 1.2

• Long-term prescribed grazing including proper stocking rates, change in season of use, and adequate time for plant recovery following grazing events. • Wildfire or prescribed burning of low to medium intensity that removes much of the pine canopy including seedlings and poles, but does not adversely impact soil and site stability.

State 2
Native/Introduced State

The Native/Introduced State is dominated by native cool-season bunchgrasses, and up to 15 percent (total annual production) non-native cool-season grasses. Warm-season grasses will be subdominant. Forbs and shrubs may also be subdominant. This state can be found on areas that are properly managed with grazing and possibly periodic prescribed burning. This state represents what is most typically found on this ecological site. This state is the result of long-term continuous season-long stocking at moderate to moderately heavy stocking levels, during the typical growing season (May through October); excessive haying; or extended periods of non-use, no fire, and the build-up litter. If the native cool-season grasses decline, a corresponding increase of non-native cool-season grasses can occur. Non-native cool-season grasses will include Kentucky bluegrass, smooth brome, timothy, orchardgrass, and annual brome.

Characteristics and indicators. Non-native cool-season grasses will make up to 15 percent of the total annual production in the Native/Invaded State (2.0).

Resilience management. Management strategies to sustain the Native/invaded State (2.0) include, setting proper stocking rates, monitoring utilization of key species, providing adequate time for plant recovery following grazing events or other disturbance events (e.g. fire, drought, hailstorms), and maintaining soil and site stability. The use of prescribed burning may be effective at limiting or minimizing the expansion of non-native cool-season grasses and ponderosa pine on the ecological site. Because of the adaptability and persistence of these non-native grass species, a recovery to the Reference State (1.0) is highly unlikely.

Dominant plant species

western snowberry (Symphoricarpos occidentalis), shrub
prairie rose (Rosa arkansana), shrub
green needlegrass (Nassella viridula), grass
Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis), grass
sideoats grama (Bouteloua curtipendula), grass
slender wheatgrass (Elymus trachycaulus), grass
prairie dropseed (Sporobolus heterolepis), grass
smooth brome (Bromus inermis), grass
American vetch (Vicia americana), other herbaceous
white sagebrush (Artemisia ludoviciana), other herbaceous
goldenrod (Solidago), other herbaceous
silverleaf Indian breadroot (Pediomelum argophyllum), other herbaceous
cinquefoil (Potentilla), other herbaceous

Community 2.1
Cool-season bunchgrasses-Dropseeds Bluegrass/Forbs/Shrubs

Plant Community 2.1 will closely resemble the Reference Plant Community (1.1). The major difference is that non-native cool-season grasses have invaded and established on the site and make up to 15 percent (by weight) of the plant community. The potential vegetation is about 85 percent grass and grass-like plants, 10 percent forbs, 5 percent shrubs. Cool-season grasses are dominant and warm-season grasses subdominant. The primary cool-season grasses include slender wheatgrass, needlegrasses, and Kentucky bluegrass. Warm-season grasses include prairie dropseed and sideoats grama. Big and little bluestem may be present as well. The Forbs are common and diverse. Shrubs include western snowberry and wild rose. This plant community is productive and resilient to disturbances such as drought and fire. It is a sustainable plant community regarding soil and site stability, watershed function, and biological integrity. Management strategies must include techniques that minimize the increase of Kentucky bluegrass and other non-native cool-season grasses, or this plant community may become at-risk.

Dominant plant species

western snowberry (Symphoricarpos occidentalis), shrub
rose (Rosa), shrub
green needlegrass (Nassella viridula), grass
Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis), grass
sideoats grama (Bouteloua curtipendula), grass
prairie dropseed (Sporobolus heterolepis), grass
slender wheatgrass (Elymus trachycaulus), grass
white sagebrush (Artemisia ludoviciana), other herbaceous
goldenrod (Solidago), other herbaceous
silverleaf Indian breadroot (Pediomelum argophyllum), other herbaceous
cinquefoil (Potentilla), other herbaceous

Figure 11. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). SD6202, Black Hills, cool-season dominant, warm-season sub-dominant. Cool-season dominant, warm-season sub-dominant.

Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun	Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec
J	F	M	A	M	J	J	A	S	O	N	D
0	0	3	10	23	34	15	6	5	4	0	0

Community 2.2
Forbs-Cool-season bunchgrasses-Dropseeds/Non-native cool-season grasses/Shrubs

This plant community developed under continuous season-long grazing, or continuous early-season seasonal grazing with no change in season of use; excessive haying possibly in combination with grazing; or extended periods of non-use and no fire, allowing for excessive litter buildup. This plant community is made up of approximately 70 percent grass and grass-like plants, 15 percent to 20% forbs, and 5 to 10 percent shrubs. The community is dominated by cool-season grasses, with much of the warm-season grass components replaced by Kentucky bluegrass and other non-native cool-season grasses. The dominant cool-season grasses include native bunchgrasses, Kentucky bluegrass, smooth brome and/or other non-native cool-season grasses, and upland sedges. Non-native cool-season grasses can make up 10 to 20 percent (by weight) of the plant community. The dominant warm-season grass is prairie dropseed and remnant stands of other cool and warm-season grasses. The forb community will be productive and diverse. Common forbs include American vetch, white sagebrush (cudweed sagewort), goldenrod, scurfpeas, cinquefoils, and western yarrow. Production can be variable but will typically be less than plant community 2.1. The period when palatability is high, is relatively short, as Kentucky bluegrass matures early in the growing season. This plant community may become at-risk of transitioning to the Invaded State (4.0). Transitioning back to plant community 2.1 may be difficult.

Dominant plant species

western snowberry (Symphoricarpos occidentalis), shrub
prairie rose (Rosa arkansana var. arkansana), shrub
Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis), grass
smooth brome (Bromus inermis), grass
green needlegrass (Nassella viridula), grass
prairie dropseed (Sporobolus heterolepis), grass
western wheatgrass (Pascopyrum smithii), grass
goldenrod (Solidago), other herbaceous
slimflower scurfpea (Psoralidium tenuiflorum), other herbaceous
silverleaf Indian breadroot (Pediomelum argophyllum), other herbaceous
white prairie aster (Symphyotrichum falcatum), other herbaceous
western yarrow (Achillea millefolium var. occidentalis), other herbaceous
cinquefoil (Potentilla), other herbaceous

Figure 12. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). SD6202, Black Hills, cool-season dominant, warm-season sub-dominant. Cool-season dominant, warm-season sub-dominant.

Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun	Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec
J	F	M	A	M	J	J	A	S	O	N	D
0	0	3	10	23	34	15	6	5	4	0	0

Pathway 2.1A
Community 2.1 to 2.2

•Continuous season-long stocking including, repeated grazing at moderate to moderately heavy stocking levels, during the typical growing season (May through October), without change in season of use or adequate recovery periods following grazing events. •Continuous early-season stocking including repeated light to moderate stocking levels, during the spring, early cool-season growing season (April through early June), without change in season of use or adequate recovery periods following grazing events. •Excessive haying includes annual mechanical harvesting of rangeland plant communities without adequate time for plant recovery. Leaving inadequate post-harvest stubble height for retention of photosynthetic leaf area, nor providing adequate insulation cover from extreme heat or cold will result in a decline in plant health and vigor and increased plant mortality. Desirable grasses and forbs for forage and wildlife cover will decrease, and other less desirable plants will increase. •Extended periods of no use and no fire results in heavy litter buildup which favors non-native cool-season grasses such as Kentucky bluegrass, smooth brome, and other non-native species, and the reduction of native warm-season grasses. •These mechanisms, singly or in combination, will shift the Cool-season bunchgrass-Dropseeds-Bluegrass/Forbs/Shrubs Plant Community (2.1) to the Forbs-Cool-season bunchgrasses-Dropseeds/Non-native cool-season grasses/Shrubs Plant Community (2.2).

Pathway 2.2A
Community 2.2 to 2.1

•Long-term prescribed grazing including, proper stocking rates, change in season of use, and adequate time for plant recovery following grazing events. •Prescribed burning or fire to decrease the amount of non-native cool-season grasses. •These mechanisms, singly or in combination, may shift the Forbs-Cool-season bunchgrasses-Dropseeds/Non-native cool-season grasses/Shrubs Plant Community (2.2) to the Cool-season bunchgrass-Dropseeds-Bluegrass/Forbs/Shrubs Plant Community(2.1).

Conservation practices

Prescribed Burning
Prescribed Grazing

State 3
Conifer State

The Conifer State consists of areas where tree canopy increases to a level that impedes the reproductive capability of the major native perennial grass species. The increase in conifer canopy is a result of encroachment from forest sites, or from rangeland sites that have been invaded; and the disruption of the natural historic fire regime that kept the trees in an immature stage. This state is reached when mature conifer canopy reaches approximately 25 percent or more. The canopy typically is dominated by ponderosa pine, but bur oak may also be present in minor amounts. With continued long-term fire suppression and no brush management or forest stand improvement, the conifer canopy can eventually become closed with much of the herbaceous understory lost. This loss is partly driven by the interception of precipitation. Ponderosa pine canopies can significantly reduce precipitation reaching the ground due to canopy interception. In areas with intermediate and dense canopy’s, the expected reduction can reach 30 percent (Wrage, 1994).

Characteristics and indicators. Ponderosa pine will be the dominant species in the Conifer State (4.0), with a canopy cover of 30 percent or greater.

Resilience management. Continued lack of fire and expansion of ponderosa pine will maintain the Conifer State (4.0).

Dominant plant species

ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa), tree
bur oak (Quercus macrocarpa), tree
western snowberry (Symphoricarpos occidentalis), shrub
rose (Rosa), shrub
western wheatgrass (Pascopyrum smithii), grass
slender wheatgrass (Elymus trachycaulus), grass
needle and thread (Hesperostipa comata), grass
sedge (Carex), grass
Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis), grass
white sagebrush (Artemisia ludoviciana), other herbaceous
pussytoes (Antennaria), other herbaceous
white prairie aster (Symphyotrichum falcatum), other herbaceous
scurfpea (Psoralidium), other herbaceous

Community 3.1
Ponderosa pine (>30% cover)/Herbaceous/Shrub understory

This plant community develops where trees from adjacent sites encroach or trees naturally occurring on the site increase and begin to shade out the herbaceous component. Ponderosa pine is the most common species to occupy the site, but bur oak has the potential to occur. These species expand on this site due to suppression of fire and no brush management. The mature tree canopy is 30 percent or greater. The potential plant community is made up of approximately 35 percent grasses and grass-like species, 5 percent forbs, 10 percent shrubs, and 50 percent trees. Dominant grass and grass-like species include wheatgrass, needlegrass, sedges, and non-native cool-season grasses. As the conifer canopy increases, cool-season native grasses tend to decrease, and more shade-tolerant non-native cool-season grasses increase. Forbs commonly found in this community include cudweed sagewort, white prairie aster, silverleaf scurfpea, and pussytoes. Shrubs will include snowberry and rose. A significant reduction of tree canopy can be accomplished through fire, mechanical brush management, or prescribed burning. The vegetation in the understory is capable of enduring fire; however, very hot crown fires will have a detrimental effect to the plant community and possible soil site stability.

Resilience management. A significant reduction of tree canopy can be accomplished through fire, mechanical brush management, or prescribed burning. The vegetation in the understory is capable of enduring fire; however, very hot crown fires will have a detrimental effect to the plant community and possible soil site stability.

Dominant plant species

ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa), tree
bur oak (Quercus macrocarpa), tree
western snowberry (Symphoricarpos occidentalis), shrub
rose (Rosa), shrub
western wheatgrass (Pascopyrum smithii), grass
Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis), grass
slender wheatgrass (Elymus trachycaulus), grass
white sagebrush (Artemisia ludoviciana), other herbaceous
white prairie aster (Symphyotrichum falcatum), other herbaceous
silverleaf Indian breadroot (Pediomelum argophyllum), other herbaceous
pussytoes (Antennaria), other herbaceous

Figure 13. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). SD6201, Black Hills, cool-season dominant. Cool-season dominant.

Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun	Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec
J	F	M	A	M	J	J	A	S	O	N	D
0	0	4	12	25	36	10	5	4	4	0	0

State 4
Invaded State

The Invaded State (4.0) is the result long-term no use, and no fire, or continuous early-season stocking and/or excessive haying, which has allowed Kentucky bluegrass and other non-native cool-season grasses to dominate the site. No use and no fire will cause an excessive thatch layer to develop. Plant litter accumulation tends to favor the more shade-tolerant introduced grass species. Hydrological function can be reduced as the dense root mats created by Kentucky bluegrass reduces water infiltration. The nutrient cycle can also be impaired, resulting in a higher level of nitrogen which also favors the introduced species. Kentucky bluegrass is very resistant to overgrazing and will expand under heavy continuous grazing and out-compete other native species that are not as adapted to overgrazing.

Characteristics and indicators. Non-native cool-season grasses will make up 30 percent or more of the total annual production in the Invaded State (4.0).

Resilience management. Management strategies to sustain this plant community include setting proper stocking rates, monitoring utilization of key species, providing adequate time for plant recovery following grazing events or other disturbance events. If adequate native propagules remain in the plant community, long-term prescribed grazing, and prescribed burning, may reduce the amount of Kentucky bluegrass and other non-native cool-season grasses to facilitate a transition to the Native/Invaded State (2.0). Another potential option to facilitate a transition to the Native/Invaded State (2.0) would include mechanical and/or chemical herbaceous weed control to reduce the non-native cool-season grasses, seeding of a native grass and forb species, followed by the implementation of long-term prescribed grazing. This option may not be ecologically nor economically feasible.

Dominant plant species

prairie sagewort (Artemisia frigida), shrub
western snowberry (Symphoricarpos occidentalis), shrub
smooth brome (Bromus inermis), grass
Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis), grass
timothy (Phleum pratense), grass
white sagebrush (Artemisia ludoviciana), other herbaceous
scurfpea (Psoralidium), other herbaceous
western yarrow (Achillea millefolium var. occidentalis), other herbaceous

Community 4.1
Non-native cool-season grasses/invasive forbs/native grasses and forbs <30%

This plant community is dominated by Kentucky bluegrass and/or other non-native cool-season grasses. These species will make up 30% or more of the total annual production. This plant community developed under long-term no use and no fire, or with continuous early-season stocking. and/or excessive haying. This plant community is made up of approximately 85 percent grasses and grass-like species, 10 percent forbs, and 5 percent shrubs. Dominant grasses include Kentucky bluegrass, timothy, and smooth brome, There can also be minor amounts of green needlegrass, western wheatgrass, and slender or bearded wheatgrass. Forbs commonly found will include western yarrow, white sage (cudweed sagewort), scurfpeas, goldenrods, and cinquefoils. A variety of non-native and invasive forbs may be present. Canada and musk thistle, ox-eye daisy, tall buttercup, and yellow and dalmatian toadflax and other invasive and noxious species may be present. Shrubs include rose and western snowberry.

Dominant plant species

western snowberry (Symphoricarpos occidentalis), shrub
rose (Rosa), shrub
Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis), grass
timothy (Phleum pratense), grass
smooth brome (Bromus inermis), grass
white sagebrush (Artemisia ludoviciana), other herbaceous
western yarrow (Achillea millefolium var. occidentalis), other herbaceous
scurfpea (Psoralidium), other herbaceous
goldenrod (Solidago), other herbaceous
cinquefoil (Potentilla), other herbaceous

Figure 14. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). SD6211, Black Hills, heavy conifer canopy. Mature ponderosa pine overstory.

Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun	Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec
J	F	M	A	M	J	J	A	S	O	N	D
1	3	7	11	24	27	12	5	4	3	2	1

State 5
Highly Degraded State

This state occurs as a result of extreme disturbance that typically removes most of the native species normally present on this site. Disturbance in the form of long-term severe grazing, heavy grazing in combination with occupation by black-tailed prairie dogs, or high-intensity fire may result in this transition. The dominant species present is highly variable, but the common characteristics include high amounts of bare ground, reduced soil aggregate stability, increased runoff and increased erosion (including increased sediment loads in the runoff). Invasive forbs, often noxious weeds, and Kentucky bluegrass are commonly present and dominant. Restoration of the ecological processes will be very difficult. In many cases, this phase is dominated by annual and/or pioneer perennial species. Highly competitive weedy species such as Canada thistle, ox eye daisy, hound’s tongue, leafy spurge, knapweeds, and a variety of other invasive broadleaf forbs can invade this state. Bare ground is also typically much higher than on any other plant community phase.

Characteristics and indicators. Pioneer perennials and annual grasses and forb species will dominate this state. Bare ground is also typically much higher than on any other plant community phase.

Resilience management. Potential option to facilitate a restoration of the Early Successional State (5.0) would include mechanical and/or chemical herbaceous weed control to reduce invasive grasses and forbs, followed by seeding native grass and forb species, followed by implementation of long-term prescribed grazing. This restoration may not be ecologically and/or economically feasible.

Dominant plant species

prairie sagewort (Artemisia frigida), shrub
threeawn (Aristida), grass
Sandberg bluegrass (Poa secunda), grass
threadleaf sedge (Carex filifolia), grass
Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis), grass
cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum), grass
field brome (Bromus arvensis), grass
sweetclover (Melilotus), other herbaceous
Cuman ragweed (Ambrosia psilostachya), other herbaceous
white sagebrush (Artemisia ludoviciana), other herbaceous

Community 5.1
Bluegrass/Bare ground/Invasive forbs

This plant community developed under heavy, continuous season-long grazing (grazing at stocking levels well above sustainable carrying capacity for extended portions of the growing season, and at the same time of year each year, without adequate recovery periods following each grazing occurrence), frequent and severe defoliation, or other excessive disturbances (e.g., heavy use areas, or livestock or wildlife concentration areas). The potential plant community is made up of approximately 60 to 80 percent grasses and grass-like species, 15 to 35 percent forbs, and 2 to 5 percent shrubs and trees. The dominant grass is often bluegrass. Other grasses may include cheatgrass, field brome, sedge, threeawn, and wheatgrasses. The dominant forbs include sweet clover, Cumin ragweed, cinquefoils, white sagebrush (cudweed sagewort), and a variety of other invader-like species. The dominant shrubs include fringed sagewort. A wide variety of other early successional plant species can occupy this site in varying amounts. This plant community is susceptible to invasion of Canada thistle and other non-native species because of the relatively high percent of bare ground.

Resilience management. Plant diversity is low (plant richness may be high, but areas are often dominated by a few species). The ecological processes are difficult to restore because of the loss of plant diversity and overall soil disturbance.

Dominant plant species

prairie sagewort (Artemisia frigida), shrub
Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis), grass
Sandberg bluegrass (Poa secunda), grass
threeawn (Aristida), grass
sedge (Carex), grass
cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum), grass
field brome (Bromus arvensis), grass
Cuman ragweed (Ambrosia psilostachya), other herbaceous
sweetclover (Melilotus), other herbaceous
white sagebrush (Artemisia ludoviciana), other herbaceous
cinquefoil (Potentilla), other herbaceous
prairie sagewort (Artemisia frigida), other herbaceous

Transition T1A
State 1 to 2

•Invasion of non-native cool-season grasses. •Continuous season-long grazing: long-term grazing at moderate to moderately heavy stocking levels during the typical growing season (May through October), without change in season of use or adequate recovery periods following grazing events. •Excessive haying includes annual mechanical harvesting of rangeland plant communities without adequate time for plant recovery. Leaving inadequate post-harvest stubble height for retention of photosynthetic leaf area, nor providing adequate insulation cover from extreme heat or cold will result in a decline in plant health and vigor and increased plant mortality. Desirable grasses and forbs for forage and wildlife cover will decrease, and other less desirable grasses and forbs species will increase. •Extended periods of no use and no fire results in heavy litter buildup which favors non-native cool-season grasses such as Kentucky bluegrass, smooth brome, and other non-native species, and the reduction of native warm-season grasses.

Constraints to recovery. Disturbance regime results in the transition from plant communities dominated by native mid and tall-height cool-season and warm-season grass to plant communities with up to 15 percent non-native cool-season grasses. Because of the adaptability and persistence of these non-native grass species, a recovery to the Reference State (1.0) is highly unlikely.

Transition T1B
State 1 to 3

•Encroachment and establishment of ponderosa pine. •Extended periods of no fire will result in establishment and expansion of ponderosa pine. •Non-use and no fire can also contribute to this transition. Excessive litter buildup can create micro-sites with higher soil moisture that extends into the warmer summer season. The extra soil moisture can be optimal for pine germination and establishment.

Constraints to recovery. With continued long-term fire suppression and no brush management, the ponderosa pine canopy can eventually become closed with much of the herbaceous understory lost. This loss is partly driven interception of precipitation. Ponderosa pine canopy can significantly reduce precipitation reaching the ground due to canopy interception. In areas with intermediate and dense canopies, the expected reduction can reach 30 percent (Wrage, 1994).

Transition T2A
State 2 to 3

•Encroachment and establishment of ponderosa pine. •Extended periods of no fire will result in establishment and expansion of ponderosa pine. •Non-use and no fire can also contribute to this transition. Excessive litter build up can create micro-sites with higher soil moisture that extends into the warmer summer season. The extra soil moisture can be optimal for pine germination and establishment.

Constraints to recovery. With continued long-term fire suppression and no brush management, the ponderosa pine canopy can eventually become closed with much of the herbaceous understory lost. This loss is partly driven by the interception of precipitation. Ponderosa pine canopy can significantly reduce precipitation reaching the ground due to canopy interception. In areas with intermediate and dense canopies, the expected reduction can reach 30 percent (Wrage, 1994).

Transition T2B
State 2 to 4

•Long-term no use resulting in heavy litter buildup which favors non-native cool-season grasses such as Kentucky bluegrass, smooth brome, and other non-native species, and the reduction of native warm-season grasses. •Long-term no fire resulting in heavy litter buildup which favors non-native cool-season grasses such as Kentucky bluegrass, smooth brome, and other non-native species, and the reduction of native warm-season grasses. •Continuous season-long grazing including, repeated light to moderate stocking levels, during the spring, early cool-season growing season (April through early June), without change in season of use or adequate recovery periods following grazing events. •Excessive haying which includes annual mechanical harvesting of rangeland plant communities without adequate time for plant recovery. Leaving inadequate post-harvest stubble height for retention of photosynthetic leaf area, nor providing adequate insulation cover from extreme heat or cold will result in a decline in plant health and vigor and increased plant mortality. Desirable grasses and forbs for forage and wildlife cover will decrease, and other less desirable plants will increase.

Constraints to recovery. Disturbance regime results in the transition from plant communities dominated by native tall and mid-statured warm- and cool-season grass, and non-native cool-season grasses that make up 15 percent of the plant community, to plant communities dominated by non-native cool-season grasses with native grasses being sub-dominant. Because of the persistence of non-native cool-season grasses, a recovery to the Native/Introduced State (2.0) is uncertain and may not be feasible.

Context dependence. Preliminary studies indicate a threshold may exist when Kentucky bluegrass exceeds 30 percent of the plant community, and native grasses represent less than 40 percent of the plant community composition. Plant communities dominated by Kentucky bluegrass have significantly less cover and diversity of native grasses and forb species. (Toledo, D. et al., 2014).

Restoration pathway R3A
State 3 to 1

•Wildfire of low to medium intensity that removes much of the pine canopy, including seedlings and poles, but does not adversely impact soil and site stability. •Prescribed burning of low to medium intensity, that removes much of the pine canopy, including seedlings and poles, but does not adversely impact soil and site stability. •Mechanical brush management or forest stand improvement to remove much or all the pine canopy. •Prescribed grazing including proper stocking rates, change in season of use, and adequate time for plant recovery following grazing events. •These mechanisms, in combination, may shift the Conifer State (3.0) to the Reference State (1.0) if adequate native propagules and seed bank are still present.

Context dependence. Constraints to recovery: Variables or processes that preclude recovery of the former state. Adequate native grass and forb propagules and seed bank need to be present in order for a relative rapid recovery of the plant community following fire event. Revegetation will be critical to maintain the soil and site stability.

Conservation practices

Brush Management
Prescribed Burning

Transition R3B
State 3 to 2

•Wildfire of low to medium intensity that removes much of the pine canopy, including seedlings and poles, but does not adversely impact soil and site stability. •Prescribed burning of low to medium intensity that removes much of the pine canopy, including seedlings and poles, but does not adversely impact soil and site stability. •Mechanical brush management or forest stand improvement to remove much or all the pine canopy. •Prescribed grazing including proper stocking rates, change in season of use, and adequate time for plant recovery following grazing events. •These mechanisms, in combination, may shift the Conifer State (3.0) to the Native/Introduced State (2.0) if adequate native propagules and seed bank are still present.

Constraints to recovery. Adequate native grass recovery and forb propagules and seed bank need to be present in order for a relative rapid recovery of the plant community following fire events. Revegetation will be critical to maintain the soil and site stability.

Conservation practices

Brush Management
Prescribed Burning
Prescribed Grazing

Transition T3A
State 3 to 4

•Wildfire of low to medium intensity that removes much of the pine canopy, including seedlings and poles, but does not adversely impact soil and site stability. •Prescribed burning of low to medium intensity that removes much of the pine canopy, including seedlings and poles, but does not adversely impact soil and site stability. •Mechanical brush management or forest stand improvement to remove much or all the pine canopy. •These mechanisms, in combination, may shift the Conifer State (3.0) to the Invaded State (4.0).

Constraints to recovery. Variables or processes that preclude recovery of the former state. Adequate grass and forb propagules and seed bank need to be present in order for a relative rapid recovery of the plant community following fire event. Revegetation will be critical to maintain the soil and site stability. In the case of high-intensity fire, and heavy disturbance, the Conifer State (3.0) has the potential to transition to the Early Successional State (4.0).

Conservation practices

Brush Management
Prescribed Burning

Transition R4A
State 4 to 2

•Early-season prescribed burning. •Long-term prescribed grazing including proper stocking rates, change in season of use, and adequate time for plant recovery following grazing events. •Seeding of desired herbaceous species. •Chemical and/or mechanical herbaceous weed control treatment followed by seeding of native grass and forb species, and long-term prescribed grazing may be an option. This could accelerate the reestablishment of structural functional groups similar to those in State 2.0, however, the resulting plant community may not achieve management objectives. •Those mechanisms, in combination, may shift the Invaded State (4.0) to the Native/Introduced State (2.0).

Constraints to recovery. Plant communities dominated by non-native cool-season grasses can be very resilient, and difficult to restore to a native-dominated plant community. Preliminary studies indicate this threshold occurs when Kentucky bluegrass exceeds 30 percent of the plant community, and native grasses represent less than 40 percent of the plant community (Toledo, D. et al., 2014). Because of the persistence of these species, a transition to the Native/Introduced State may not be ecologically or economically feasible.

Conservation practices

Brush Management
Prescribed Grazing
Native Plant Community Restoration and Management

Transition R4B
State 4 to 3

•Encroachment and establishment of ponderosa pine. •Extended periods of no fire will result in the establishment and expansion of ponderosa pine. •Non-use and no fire can also contribute to this transition. Excessive litter build up can create micro-sites with higher soil moisture that extends into the warmer summer season. The extra soil moisture can be optimal for ponderosa pine germination and establishment. •These mechanisms in combination will shift the Invaded State (4.0) to the Conifer State (3.0).

Context dependence. With continued long-term fire suppression and no brush management, the ponderosa pine canopy can eventually become closed with much of the herbaceous understory lost. This loss is partly driven by the interception of precipitation. Ponderosa pine canopy can significantly reduce precipitation reaching the ground due to canopy interception. In areas with intermediate and dene canopies, the expected reduction can reach 30 percent (Wrage, 1994).

Conservation practices

Prescribed Grazing

Transition T4A
State 4 to 5

•Heavy, continuous season-long grazing: long-term grazing at moderately heavy to heavy stocking levels during the typical growing season (May through October), without changing season of use or adequate recovery periods followed by grazing events. •Frequent and severe defoliation by livestock or wildlife: Continuous year-long heavy grazing, or heavy, concentrated disturbance such as intense rodent activity, or livestock concentration areas. •Heavy disturbance: Soil and site stability is compromised from one, or a combination of, excessive grazing or defoliation, heavy livestock or vehicle traffic, wildfire, or drought. •Invasion and expansion of ruderal and invasive species.

Constraints to recovery. The disturbance regime resulting in the transition from plant communities dominated by non-native cool-season grasses to plant communities dominated by pioneer perennial plants and invasive non-native forbs will need to be altered to reverse this transition. A return to the Invaded State (4.0) is possible with economic and management inputs.

Restoration pathway R5A
State 5 to 4

•Chemical and/or mechanical herbaceous weed control treatment followed by seeding of native or introduced grass and forb species. •Long-term prescribed grazing including proper stocking rates, change in season of use, and adequate time for plant recovery following grazing events. •Reducing or removing disturbances. •These management activities could accelerate the reestablishment of structural functional groups similar to those in state 4.0, however, the resulting plant community may not achieve management or economic objectives.

Context dependence. The ecological processes are difficult to restore because of the loss of plant diversity and overall soil disturbance. Soil erosion is potentially very high because of the bare ground and shallow rooted herbaceous plant community. Water runoff will increase, and infiltration will decrease due to low plant diversity and vigor. This plant community will require financial inputs and time to move toward another plant community. This is due to the loss of diversity (including the loss of seedbank) , within the existing plant community, and the plant communities on adjacent sites.

Conservation practices

Forage and Biomass Planting
Prescribed Grazing
Range Planting
Invasive Plant Species Control

Additional community tables

Table 6. Community 1.1 plant community composition

Group	Common name	Symbol	Scientific name	Annual production (lb/acre)	Foliar cover (%)
Grass/Grasslike
2	Cool-Season Bunchgrass			450–900
	green needlegrass	NAVI4	Nassella viridula	300–750	–
	slender wheatgrass	ELTRS	Elymus trachycaulus ssp. subsecundus	150–300	–
	needle and thread	HECOC8	Hesperostipa comata ssp. comata	30–150	–
	Columbia needlegrass	ACNE9	Achnatherum nelsonii	0–150	–
	porcupinegrass	HESP11	Hesperostipa spartea	0–150	–
	slender wheatgrass	ELTR7	Elymus trachycaulus	0–150	–
3	Tall Warm-Season Grasses			150–450
	prairie dropseed	SPHE	Sporobolus heterolepis	150–300	–
	big bluestem	ANGE	Andropogon gerardii	0–150	–
	composite dropseed	SPCOC2	Sporobolus compositus var. compositus	0–90	–
1	Rhizomatous Wheatgrass			60–300
	western wheatgrass	PASM	Pascopyrum smithii	30–150	–
	thickspike wheatgrass	ELLAL	Elymus lanceolatus ssp. lanceolatus	30–150	–
4	Mid- Warm-Season Grasses			90–300
	sideoats grama	BOCU	Bouteloua curtipendula	60–300	–
	little bluestem	SCSC	Schizachyrium scoparium	30–150	–
5	Short Warm-Season Grasses			0–300
	blue grama	BOGR2	Bouteloua gracilis	0–60	–
	threeawn	ARIST	Aristida	0–60	–
6	Other Native Grasses			60–150
	Grass, perennial	2GP	Grass, perennial	0–120	–
	prairie Junegrass	KOMA	Koeleria macrantha	30–90	–
	Cusick's bluegrass	POCU3	Poa cusickii	30–60	–
	Sandberg bluegrass	POSE	Poa secunda	0–30	–
7	Grass-Likes			60–150
	needleleaf sedge	CADU6	Carex duriuscula	30–150	–
	threadleaf sedge	CAFI	Carex filifolia	30–150	–
	sedge	CAREX	Carex	0–90	–
8	Non-Native Cool-Season Grasses			0
Forb
9	Forbs			150–450
	Forb, native	2FN	Forb, native	30–120	–
	cinquefoil	POTEN	Potentilla	30–60	–
	white sagebrush	ARLU	Artemisia ludoviciana	30–60	–
	desert biscuitroot	LOFO	Lomatium foeniculaceum	30–60	–
	dotted blazing star	LIPU	Liatris punctata	30–60	–
	beardtongue	PENST	Penstemon	30–60	–
	prairie clover	DALEA	Dalea	30–60	–
	upright prairie coneflower	RACO3	Ratibida columnifera	30–60	–
	scarlet beeblossom	GACO5	Gaura coccinea	30–60	–
	scarlet globemallow	SPCO	Sphaeralcea coccinea	30–60	–
	silverleaf Indian breadroot	PEAR6	Pediomelum argophyllum	30–60	–
	slimflower scurfpea	PSTE5	Psoralidium tenuiflorum	30–60	–
	prairie thermopsis	THRH	Thermopsis rhombifolia	30–60	–
	goldenrod	SOLID	Solidago	30–60	–
	white prairie aster	SYFA	Symphyotrichum falcatum	30–60	–
	leafy wildparsley	MUDI	Musineon divaricatum	30–60	–
	American vetch	VIAM	Vicia americana	30–60	–
	bluebells	MERTE	Mertensia	0–30	–
	pussytoes	ANTEN	Antennaria	0–30	–
	bellflower	CAMPA	Campanula	0–30	–
	spiderwort	TRADE	Tradescantia	0–30	–
	Cuman ragweed	AMPS	Ambrosia psilostachya	0–30	–
	western yarrow	ACMIO	Achillea millefolium var. occidentalis	0–30	–
	blacksamson echinacea	ECAN2	Echinacea angustifolia	0–30	–
	buckwheat	ERIOG	Eriogonum	0–30	–
	fleabane	ERIGE2	Erigeron	0–30	–
Shrub/Vine
10	Shrubs			150–300
	western snowberry	SYOC	Symphoricarpos occidentalis	60–120	–
	rose	ROSA5	Rosa	60–120	–
	silver sagebrush	ARCA13	Artemisia cana	0–60	–
	skunkbush sumac	RHTR	Rhus trilobata	30–60	–
	Shrub (>.5m)	2SHRUB	Shrub (>.5m)	0–60	–
	broom snakeweed	GUSA2	Gutierrezia sarothrae	0–60	–
	prairie sagewort	ARFR4	Artemisia frigida	0–60	–
	leadplant	AMCA6	Amorpha canescens	0–60	–
	Wyoming big sagebrush	ARTRW8	Artemisia tridentata ssp. wyomingensis	0–60	–
	field sagewort	ARCA12	Artemisia campestris	0–30	–
	rubber rabbitbrush	ERNA10	Ericameria nauseosa	0–30	–
Tree
11	Trees			0–60
	ponderosa pine	PIPO	Pinus ponderosa	0–60	–
	bur oak	QUMA2	Quercus macrocarpa	0–60	–
	Tree	2TREE	Tree	0–60	–

Interpretations

Animal community

Wildlife Interpretations
The Black Hills and Bear Lodge Mountains of South Dakota and Wyoming are truly a forested island in a grassland sea. To regional Native Americans they are “Paha Sapa,” or “hills that are black”, and from a distance, the ponderosa pine-covered slopes do appear like black hills (Larson, 1999).

The Black Hills and Bear Lodge Mountains are located in the drier areas of a northern mixed-grass prairie ecosystem in which sagebrush steppes to the west yield to grassland steppes to the east. Prior to European settlement, MLRA 62 consisted of diverse grassland, shrubland, and forest habitats interspersed with varying densities of depressional instream wetlands and woody riparian corridors. These habitats provided critical life cycle components for many users. Many species of grassland birds, small mammals, reptiles, amphibians, and herds of roaming bison, elk, and pronghorn were among the inhabitants adapted to this semi-arid region. Roaming herbivores, as well as several species of small mammals and insects, were the primary consumers linking the grassland resources to large predators, such as the gray wolf, mountain lion, grizzly bear, and to smaller carnivores, such as the coyote, bobcat, fox, and raptors.

Beaver inhabited surface waters associated with instream wetlands and woody riparian corridors along streams and drainages. Beaver occupation served as a mechanism to maintain water tables along flood plains and valley floors. During pre-European settlement times, the extent of the wet land sites was likely much more widespread and persistent during dry periods; however, excessive trapping and removal since that time has changed the hydrology and limited the extent of these sites while drying former mesic areas throughout the MLRA.

Grazing Interpretations
Production and accessibility of plant communities described in the Stony Hills ecological site can be highly variable. A complete resource inventory is necessary to document plant composition and production. Accurate estimates of carrying capacity should be calculated using vegetative clipping data, animal preference data, and actual stocking records.

Initial suggested stocking rates should be calculated using a base of 912 lb/acre (air-dry weight) per animal-unit-month (AUM). An AUM is defined as the equivalent amount of forage required by a 1,000-pound cow with or without calf, for one month. Use a 25 percent harvest efficiency of preferred and desirable forage species (refer to USDA-NRCS National Range and Pasture Handbook).

Grazing by domestic livestock is one of the major income-producing industries in the area. Rangeland in this area may provide yearlong forage for livestock. During the dormant period, the forage for livestock likely has insufficient protein to meet livestock requirements. Added protein allows ruminants to better utilize the energy stored in grazed plant materials. A forage quality test should be used to determine the level of supplementation needed.

Hydrological functions

This site is dominated by soils in hydrologic groups B. Infiltration and runoff potential for this site varies from moderate to high depending on soil hydrologic group, slope and ground cover. Refer to the USDA-NRCS National Engineering Handbook, Part 630, for hydrologic soil groups, runoff quantities, and hydrologic curves.

Recreational uses

This site provides opportunities for hunting, hiking, photography, and bird watching. The wide variety of plants that bloom from spring until fall have an aesthetic value that appeals to visitors.

Wood products

No appreciable wood products are typically present on this site.

Other products

Harvesting the seeds of native plants on this site can provide additional income.

Other information

Revision Notes: Provisional
This provisional ecological site description (ESD) has passed quality control (QC) and quality assurance (QA) to ensure that it meets the 2014 National Ecological Site Handbook (NESH) standards for a provisional ecological site description. This site description should not be considered an Approved ESD, as it contains only the foundational site concepts and requires further data collection, site investigations, and final State-and-Transition Model (STM) reviews before it can be used as an Approved ESD meeting NESH standards.

Site Development and Testing Plan
Future work, as described in an official project plan, is necessary to validate the information in this provisional ecological site description. The plan will include field activities for low-, medium-, and high-intensity sampling, soil correlations, and analysis of the data. Annual field reviews should be done by soil scientists and vegetation specialists. Final field review, peer review, quality control, and quality assurance reviews are required to produce the final document.

Supporting information

Inventory data references

Information presented here has been derived from NRCS clipping data and other inventory data. Field observations from range-trained personnel were also used. Those involved in developing this site include: Stan Boltz, range management specialist (RMS), NRCS; Dan Brady, soil scientist (SS), NRCS; Mitch Faulkner, RMS, NRCS; Rick Peterson, (RMS), NRCS; Mathew Scott, RMS, USFS, Cynthia Englebert, RMS, USFS; and Jim Westerman, (SS), NRCS. All inventory information and data records are compiled within the Rapid City, SD USDA-NRCS Shared “S” network drive.

Other references

Brown, P. M. and C. Hull-Sieg. 1996. Fire history in interior ponderosa pine communities of the Black Hills, South Dakota, USA, Int. J. Wildland Fire 6(3): 97-105.

Carter, J.M., D.G. Driscoll, and J.E. Williamson. 2002. The Black Hills Hydrology Study, U.S. Geological Survey Water-Resources Investigations, USGS Fact Sheet FS-046-02.

Cleland, D.T., J.A. Freeouf, J.E. Keys, G.J. Nowacki, C.A. Carpenter, and W.H McNab. 2007. Ecological subregions: Sections and subsections of the conterminous United States. USDA Forest Service, General Technical Report WO-76D. https://www.fs.fed.us/research/publications/misc/73326-wo-gtr-76d-cleland2007.pdf (accessed 31 January 2019).

Cowardin, L.M., V. Carter, F.C. Golet, and E.T. LaRoe. 1979. Classification of wetlands and deep-water habitats of the United States. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service FWS/OBS-79/31.U.S.

Environmental Protection Agency. 2018. EPA level III and level IV ecoregions of the conterminous United States. https://www.epa.gov/eco-research/level-iii-and-iv-ecoregions- conterminous-united-states (accessed 26 April 2018).

Froiland S.G. and R.R. Weedon. 1990. Natural history of the Black Hills and Badlands. Center for Western Studies, Augustana College, Sioux Falls SD.

Gartner, F. R. and W. W. Thompson. 1972. Fire in the Black Hills forest-grass ecotone, South Dakota Agricultural Experiment Station, Journal Series No 1115.

Hall, J. S.; Marriott, J. H.; Perot, J. K. 2002. Ecological Conservation in the Black Hills. Minneapolis, MN: The Nature Conservancy.

High Plains Regional Climate Center, University of Nebraska. 2018. http://www.hprcc.unl.edu/ (accessed 6 April 2018).

Hoffman, George R. and, Robert R. Alexander. 1987. Forest vegetation of the Black Hills National Forest of South Dakota and Wyoming: a habitat type classification. Res. Pap. RM-276. USDA-USFS, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station.

Larson, Gary E. and James R. Johnson. 1999. Plants of the Black Hills and Bear Lodge Mountains. South Dakota State University, College of Agriculture and Biological Sciences and Agriculture Experiment Station, Bulletin 732, Brookings, SD.

McIntosh, A.C. 1949. A botanical survey of the Black Hills of South Dakota. Black Hills Engineer. 28 (4): 3-75.

Parrish, J. B., D. J. Herman, D. J. Reyher, and F. R. Gartner. 1996. A Century of change in the Black Hills and riparian ecosystems. Open Prairie: Bulletins 726, Agriculture Experiment Station, South Dakota State University. https://openprairie.sdstate.edu/agexperimentsta_bulletins/726

Shepperd, W. D. and M. A. Battaglia. 2002. Ecology, silviculture, and management of Black Hills ponderosa pine. Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-97. Fort Collins, CO: US Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station. 112 p.

Toledo, D., M. Sanderson, K. Spaeth, J. Hendrickson, and J. Printz. 2014. Extent of Kentucky bluegrass and its effect on native plant species diversity and ecosystem services in the Northern Great Plains of the United States. Invasive Plant Science and Management. 7(4):543–522. Weed Science Society of America.

U.S. Department of Agriculture, U.S. Forest Service. 2017. Black Hills Resilient Landscape Project, Draft Environmental Impact Statement.

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service. 2019. Electronic field office technical guide. https://efotg.sc.egov.usda.gov (accessed 24 July 2019).

Soil Survey Staff. 2019. Official soil series descriptions. USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service. https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detail/soils/home/?cid=nrcs142p2_053587 (accessed 30 July 2019).

Soil Survey Staff. 2019. Web Soil Survey. USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service. https://websoilsurvey.sc.egov.usda.gov/App/WebSoilSurvey.aspx (accessed 30 July 2019).

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service. 2006. Land resource regions and major land resource areas of the United States, the Caribbean, and the Pacific Basin. Agriculture Handbook 296. https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/nrcs142p2_050898.pdf (accessed 27 January 2018).

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service. 2014. National ecological site handbook, 1st ed. https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detail/soils/ref/?cid=nrcseprd1291232 (accessed 27 January 2018).

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service. 2012. National engineering handbook, part 630. Hydrology chapters from e-Directives. https://directives.sc.egov.usda.gov/viewerFS.aspx?hid=21422 (accessed 17 January 2018).

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service. 2018. Climate data. National Water and Climate Center. http://www.wcc.nrcs.usda.gov/ (accessed 2 December 2018).

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service. 1997. National range and pasture handbook, rev. 1, 2003. https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/stelprdb1043055.pdf (accessed 7 January 2018).

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service. 2019. National Soil Information System, Information Technology Center. http://nasis.nrcs.usda.gov (accessed 30 July 2019).

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service. 2019. PLANTS database. National Plant Data Team, Greensboro, NC. http://plants.usda.gov (accessed 30 July 2019).

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service. 2007. National engineering handbook, part 654. Rosgen Stream Classification Technique – Supplemental Materials, Technical Supplement 3E. https://directives.sc.egov.usda.gov/OpenNonWebContent.aspx?content=17833.wba (accessed 4 March 2019).

Wrage, K.J. 1994. The effects of ponderosa pine on soil moisture, precipitation, and understory vegetation in the Black Hills of South Dakota. 158 p. Thesis.

Contributors

Peterson Rick L.
Westerman James
Stan C. Boltz
Mitchel D. Faulkner

Approval

Suzanne Mayne-Kinney, 7/31/2024

Acknowledgments

MLRA 62 sites were written to the Provisional Level by Rick L. Peterson, ESS, Rapid City, SSO in FY20.

The ESDs were reviewed for quality control by Emily Helms, John Hartung, Mitch Faulkner, and Ryan Murray.

All ecological sites were then reviewed and approved at the Provisional Level by David Kraft, Regional ESS, Salina, KS in September 2020.

Nondiscrimination Statement
In accordance with Federal civil rights law and U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) civil rights regulations and policies, the USDA, its Agencies, offices, and employees, and institutions participating in or administering USDA programs are prohibited from discriminating based on race, color, national origin, religion, sex, gender identity (including gender expression), sexual orientation, disability, age, marital status, family/parental status, income derived from a public assistance program, political beliefs, or reprisal or retaliation for prior civil rights activity, in any program or activity conducted or funded by USDA (not all bases apply to all programs). Remedies and complaint filing deadlines vary by program or incident.

Persons with disabilities who require alternative means of communication for program information (e.g., Braille, large print, audiotape, American Sign Language, etc.) should contact the responsible Agency or USDA's TARGET Center at (202) 720-2600 (voice and TTY) or contact USDA through the Federal Relay Service at (800) 877-8339. Additionally, program information may be made available in languages other than English.

To file a program discrimination complaint, complete the USDA Program Discrimination Complaint Form, AD-3027, available online at https://www.ascr.usda.gov/filing-program-discrimination-complaint-usda-customer and at any USDA office, or write a letter addressed to USDA and provide in the letter all of the information requested in the form. To request a copy of the complaint form, call (866) 632-9992. Submit your completed form or letter to USDA by:
(1) mail: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Office of the Assistant Secretary for Civil Rights, 1400 Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, D.C. 20250-9410;
(2) fax: (202) 690-7442; or
(3) email: program.intake@usda.gov.

USDA is an equal opportunity provider, employer, and lender.

Rangeland health reference sheet

Interpreting Indicators of Rangeland Health is a qualitative assessment protocol used to determine ecosystem condition based on benchmark characteristics described in the Reference Sheet. A suite of 17 (or more) indicators are typically considered in an assessment. The ecological site(s) representative of an assessment location must be known prior to applying the protocol and must be verified based on soils and climate. Current plant community cannot be used to identify the ecological site.

Author(s)/participant(s)
Contact for lead author
Date	07/31/2024
Approved by	Suzanne Mayne-Kinney
Approval date
Composition (Indicators 10 and 12) based on	Annual Production