Ecological site R065XY054NE

3. Invaded Grass State

4. Invaded Woody State

States 1, 5 and 2 (additional transitions)

T1A	-	Long-term (> 10 years), heavy defoliation through grazing or haying.
T1B	-	Long-term (> 10 years), heavy, grazing during summer months or prolonged (>10 years) absence of grazing and fire.
T1C	-	Woody encroachment with no fire or brush management.
T1D	-	Tillage to facilitate production agriculture.
R2A	-	Long-term (>15 years) prescribed grazing. This restoration may not be feasible.
T2A	-	Long-term (> 10 years), heavy, grazing during summer months.
T2B	-	Woody encroachment with no fire or brush management.
T2C	-	Tillage to facilitate production agriculture.
R3A	-	Long-term (>15 years) prescribed grazing. This restoration may not be feasible.
R3B	-	Long-term (>15 years) prescribed grazing. This restoration may not be feasible.
T3A	-	Woody encroachment with no fire or brush management.
T3B	-	Tillage to facilitate production agriculture.
R4A	-	Prescribed burning, timber harvest, brush management.
R4B	-	Prescribed burning, timber harvest, brush management.
R4C	-	Prescribed burning, timber harvest, brush management.
R4D	-	Prescribed burning, timber harvest, brush management.
T5A	-	Woody encroachment with no fire or brush management.

State 1 submodel, plant communities

1.1. Reference Community

1.2. At-Risk Community

1.1A	-	Moderate grazing managed with continuous, season long grazing, continuous seasonal grazing, or rotational grazing with inadequate recovery time.
1.2A	-	Prescribed grazing (or haying) with adequate, growing season recovery time.

State 1
Reference State

The Reference State (1) describes the range of vegetative communities that occur on the Sandy 22-25" PZ ecological site where the range of natural variability under historic conditions and disturbance regimes is mostly intact. The Reference State developed under the combined influences of climatic conditions, periodic fire activity, grazing by large herbivores, and impacts from small mammals and insects. High perennial grass cover and production allows for increased soil moisture retention, vegetative production and overall soil quality. The Reference State includes three community phases which are the Reference Community (1.1) and the At-Risk Community (1.2). The Reference Community serves as a description of the native plant community that naturally occurs on the site when the natural disturbance regimes are intact or closely mimicked by management practices. The At-Risk Community results from management actions that are unfavorable for a healthy Reference Community.

Dominant plant species

sand bluestem (Andropogon hallii), grass
big bluestem (Andropogon gerardii), grass
prairie sandreed (Calamovilfa longifolia), grass
little bluestem (Schizachyrium scoparium), grass

Community 1.1
Reference Community

Interpretations are primarily based on the Reference or Sand Bluestem-Prairie Sandreed (Andropogon hallii-Calamovilfa longifolia) Community (1.1). This plant community serves as a description of the native plant community that occurs on the site when the historic disturbance regimes are intact or are closely mimicked by management practices. This phase is dynamic, with fluid relative abundance and spatial boundaries between the dominant structural vegetative groups. These fluctuations are primarily driven by different responses of the species to changes in precipitation timing and abundance, and to fire and grazing events. This site developed with grazing by large herbivores and is well suited for grazing by domestic livestock. This plant community consists chiefly of is dominated by warm-season, tall- and midgrasses. Sand bluestem, little bluestem, and prairie sandreed are the dominant grasses. Grasses of secondary importance include big bluestem, Indiangrass, switchgrass, needle and thread, and porcupine grass. Sedges and blue grama occur in the understory. The forb community is diverse. Leadplant, western sandcherry, and rose are common shrubs. The potential vegetative composition is 80 to 90 percent grasses, 5 to 10 percent forbs, and 1 to 5 percent shrubs by weight. Natural fire played a significant role in the succession of this site by limiting the extent of shrubs. Wildfires have been actively controlled in recent times, facilitating tree and shrub encroachment. This plant community can be found on areas that are managed with prescribed grazing, prescribed burning, and may be found on areas receiving occasional periods of short-term rest. This resilient community is well adapted to the Northern Great Plains climatic conditions. Plant diversity promotes strong tolerance to drought, site and soil stability, a functional hydrologic cycle, and a high degree of biotic integrity. These factors create a suitable environment for a healthy and sustainable plant community.

Dominant plant species

sand bluestem (Andropogon hallii), grass
prairie sandreed (Calamovilfa longifolia), grass
little bluestem (Schizachyrium scoparium), grass
big bluestem (Andropogon gerardii), grass
switchgrass (Panicum virgatum), grass
needle and thread (Hesperostipa comata ssp. comata), grass

Figure 9. Annual production by plant type (representative values) or group (midpoint values)

Table 5. Annual production by plant type

Plant type	Low (lb/acre)	Representative value (lb/acre)	High (lb/acre)
Grass/Grasslike	2130	2685	3020
Forb	145	225	325
Shrub/Vine	25	90	155
Total	2300	3000	3500

Figure 10. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). NE6534, NE/SD Sandhills, Native Grasslands. Warm-season dominant, cool-season subdominant, mid- and tallgrasses.

Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun	Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec
J	F	M	A	M	J	J	A	S	O	N	D
		5	5	15	25	30	10	7	3

Community 1.2
At-Risk Community

The At-Risk or Switchgrass-Prairie Sandreed (Panicum virgatum-Calamovilfa longifolia) Community (1.2) develops with moderate grazing with continuous seasonal grazing, continuous season-long grazing, or rotational grazing with inadequate growing season recovery time. Annual haying during same timeframe each year will also cause this shift in plant community. Species diversity is similar to the Reference Community but the more palatable warm-season tallgrasses such as sand bluestem and Indiangrass are reduced as a proportion of the plant community due to continued defoliation of these grasses during their critical growth periods. Sand bluestem and Indiangrass are reduced in terms of production while switchgrass and prairie sandreed have been reduced in terms of annual production but are the dominant species. Prairie sandreed, little bluestem, and switchgrass are the dominant grasses. Grasses of secondary importance include sand bluestem, Indiangrass, and blue grama. The forb component remains diverse. Leadplant and rose are common shrubs. The potential vegetative composition is 80 to 90 percent grasses and grass-likes, 5 to 10 percent forbs, and 1 to 10 percent shrubs. In the absence of drought, this plant community can be maintained with moderate grazing (seasonal, season-long or rotational). Heavy continuous season-long grazing or rotational grazing with multiple grazing events per season accompanied by inadequate growing season recovery periods further reduce the abundance of warm- season tall- and midgrasses and will move this community to the Degraded Native Grass State (2). Drought conditions without a corresponding reduction in grazing pressure through reduced stocking rates or reduced grazing time can also cause this transition. Heavy, continuous seasonal grazing during the summer months will move this community to the Invaded Grass State (3).

Dominant plant species

switchgrass (Panicum virgatum), grass
prairie sandreed (Calamovilfa longifolia), grass
little bluestem (Schizachyrium scoparium), grass
sand bluestem (Andropogon hallii), grass

Figure 11. Annual production by plant type (representative values) or group (midpoint values)

Table 6. Annual production by plant type

Plant type	Low (lb/acre)	Representative value (lb/acre)	High (lb/acre)
Grass/Grasslike	1660	2175	2650
Forb	120	190	275
Shrub/Vine	20	135	275
Total	1800	2500	3200

Figure 12. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). NE6534, NE/SD Sandhills, Native Grasslands. Warm-season dominant, cool-season subdominant, mid- and tallgrasses.

Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun	Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec
J	F	M	A	M	J	J	A	S	O	N	D
		5	5	15	25	30	10	7	3

Pathway 1.1A
Community 1.1 to 1.2

Grazing management that includes continuous season long grazing, continuous seasonal grazing, or rotational grazing with inadequate growing season recovery time will move the Reference Community (1.1) to the At-Risk Community (1.2). Continued annual haying will also cause this shift.

Pathway 1.2A
Community 1.2 to 1.1

At-Risk Community (1.2) can return to the Reference Community (1.1) with implementation of prescribed grazing with adequate growing season recovery periods. Grazing in the spring or fall with deferment during the rapid growth period of warm-season tallgrasses will accelerate this change in plant community. When the land is utilized as hayland, haying every other year will facilitate the return to Reference Community.

State 2
Degraded Native Grass State

The Degraded Native Grass State (2) transitioned from the Reference State (1) and much of the native warm-season tall- and midgrass components have been replaced by warm-season shortgrasses, cool-season grasses, and upland sedges. This State is the result of long-term grazing management that did not provide adequate recovery time for warm-season tall- and midgrasses and cool-season bunchgrasses. The management that results in the Degraded Native Grass State is typically heavy continuous season long grazing but heavy rotational grazing with inadequate growing season recovery periods can also cause this transition. Over time, repeated annual haying during the rapid growth period of warm-season tallgrasses with inadequate growing recovery periods will also cause this transition. The loss of warm-season tall- and midgrasses negatively impacts energy flow, nutrient cycling, and hydrologic function. Runoff is higher and infiltration is lower than the Reference State. This state is very resistant to change. The Degraded Native Grass State includes the Warm-Season Shortgrass/Cool-Season Grass Community (2.1).

Dominant plant species

blue grama (Bouteloua gracilis), grass
western wheatgrass (Pascopyrum smithii), grass

Community 2.1
Warm-Season Shortgrass/Cool-Season Grass Community

The Warm-Season Shortgrass/Cool-Season Grass or Blue Grama-Western Wheatgrass (Bouteloua gracilis-Pascopyrum smithii) Community typically develops with heavy livestock grazing, typically season long continuous grazing. This community can also develop with heavy rotational grazing with inadequate growing season recovery periods. As compared to the Reference Community (1.1), warm-season, mid- and shortgrasses, especially blue grama and sand dropseed, have increased. Cool-season grasses, especially western wheatgrass, have increased. Sedges are common in the understory. Palatable forbs have decreased while Cuman ragweed, tarragon, white heath aster, and white sagebrush have increased. Rose, leadplant, and western sandcherry have diminished in abundance and soapweed yucca and pricklypears have increased. Blue grama, western wheatgrass, and sand dropseed are the dominant grasses. Other common grasses and grasslikes include prairie sandreed, little bluestem, needle and thread, and sedges. The potential vegetative composition is 80 to 90 percent grasses and grass-likes, 5 to 15 percent forbs, and 1 to 5 percent shrubs. Continued heavy grazing during the summer months will convert this plant community to the Invaded Grass State (3). Long-term prescribed grazing with moderate stocking rates and adequate growing season recovery time between grazing occupations will move the plant community toward the Reference State (1) if an adequate amount of warm-season tall- and midgrasses remain in the plant community.

Dominant plant species

blue grama (Bouteloua gracilis), grass
sand dropseed (Sporobolus cryptandrus), grass
western wheatgrass (Pascopyrum smithii), grass

Figure 13. Annual production by plant type (representative values) or group (midpoint values)

Table 7. Annual production by plant type

Plant type	Low (lb/acre)	Representative value (lb/acre)	High (lb/acre)
Grass/Grasslike	1305	1480	1635
Forb	80	170	275
Shrub/Vine	15	50	90
Total	1400	1700	2000

Figure 14. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). NE6540, NE/SD Sandhills, Native Grass, Grama/Wheatgrass. Warm-season and cool-season co-dominant, short and mid grasses.

Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun	Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec
J	F	M	A	M	J	J	A	S	O	N	D
0	0	5	10	20	25	20	15	5	0	0	0

State 3
Invaded Grass State

The Invaded Grass State (3) transitioned from the either the Reference State (1) or the Degraded Native Grass State (2) and much of the native grass components have been replaced by non-native, cool-season grasses. The management that results in the Invaded Grass State is typically heavy continuous seasonal grazing during the summer months but heavy rotational grazing with inadequate growing season recovery periods during the summer months can also cause this transition. Over time, repeated annual haying during the rapid growth period of warm-season tallgrasses with inadequate growing recovery periods will also cause this transition. Prolonged absence of grazing and fire may also result in a community dominated by non-native, cool-season grasses. The loss of warm-season tall- and midgrasses negatively impacts energy flow, nutrient cycling, and hydrologic function. Runoff is higher and infiltration is lower than the Reference State. This state is very resistant to change. Once this State is reached, restoration to the previous state will require an extended amount of time and will only be feasible if adequate remnant native grasses persist the plant community. The Invaded Grass State includes the Non-Native Grass Community (3.1).

Dominant plant species

Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis), grass
blue grama (Bouteloua gracilis), grass
sand dropseed (Sporobolus cryptandrus), grass
Cuman ragweed (Ambrosia psilostachya), other herbaceous

Community 3.1
Non-Native Grass Community

The Non-Native Grass or Kentucky Bluegrass/Cuman Ragweed (Poa pratensis/Ambrosia psilostachya) Community typically develops with heavy, continuous, seasonal, summer grazing but may also develop with heavy, rotational grazing during the summer months when plants are not allowed adequate growing season recovery time between grazing events. Sustained heavy stocking rates during the summer months produce a plant community dominated by cool-season grasses and forbs. Kentucky bluegrass is a dominant component of the plant community and at least thirty percent of the annual production comes from Kentucky bluegrass or other non-native grasses. A Kentucky bluegrass dominated community may also develop in situations where herbivory and fire are absent for extended periods. Continuous and heavy grazing pressure will maintain this community in a sod-bound condition. Kentucky bluegrass, blue grama, Scribner's panicum, and sand dropseed are the dominant grasses. Other grasses or grass-likes include needleandthread, sedges, and smooth brome. Forbs include tarragon, Cuman ragweed, Rocky Mountain beeplant, and thistles. The potential vegetative composition is 70 to 80 percent grasses or grasslike plants, 5 to 20 percent forbs, and 1 to 10 percent shrubs. As compared to the Reference Community (1.1) warm-season tall- and midgrasses are reduced to trace amounts and may be missing from the plant community. Blue grama, sand dropseed, and Scribner's panicum have increased as a proportion of the plant community. Non-native cool-season grasses have encroached and filled the void left by the removal of warm-season tall- and midgrasses. Sedges flourish in the understory. Forbs and grazing resistant shrubs, especially soapweed yucca and cacti, have significantly increased. Plant diversity has decreased. Forb species richness and species diversity has decreased. With the decline and loss of deeper-penetrating root systems, a compacted layer may form in the soil profile below the shallower root systems. Soil erosion is low. The high density of short-rooted grasses has decreased water infiltration resulting in an impaired hydrologic cycle. This community is resistant to change due to the sod-forming nature of plants present.

Dominant plant species

Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis), grass
sand dropseed (Sporobolus cryptandrus), grass
blue grama (Bouteloua gracilis), grass
Cuman ragweed (Ambrosia psilostachya), other herbaceous

Figure 15. Annual production by plant type (representative values) or group (midpoint values)

Table 8. Annual production by plant type

Plant type	Low (lb/acre)	Representative value (lb/acre)	High (lb/acre)
Grass/Grasslike	835	1015	1185
Forb	55	150	250
Shrub/Vine	10	35	65
Total	900	1200	1500

Figure 16. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). NE6541, NE/SD Sandhills, Native Grass, Cool Seasons/Forbs. Cool-season dominant, warm-season subdominant, short & mid grasses.

Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun	Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec
J	F	M	A	M	J	J	A	S	O	N	D
0	0	5	10	30	25	15	5	5	5	0	0

State 4
Invaded Woody State

The Invaded Woody State (4) is the result of woody encroachment. Once the tree canopy cover reaches 15 percent with an average tree height exceeding five feet, the threshold to the Invaded Woody State has been crossed. Woody species are increasing due to the lack of prescribed fire, brush management, or other woody tree removal. Typical ecological impacts are a loss of native grasses, reduce diversity of functional and structural groups, reduced forage production, and reduced soil quality. Prescribed burning, wildfire, timber harvest and brush management will move the Invaded Woody State toward a grass dominated state. If the Invaded Woody State transitioned from Native/Invaded Grass State (2) or the Sodbusted State (3), the land cannot return to the Reference State (1) as the native plant community, soils, and hydrologic function had been too severely impacted prior to the woody encroachment to allow the return to the Reference State through woody species removal alone. The Invaded Woody State includes one community, the Invaded Woody Community (4.1).

Dominant plant species

eastern redcedar (Juniperus virginiana), tree
smooth sumac (Rhus glabra), shrub
blue grama (Bouteloua gracilis), grass
needle and thread (Hesperostipa comata ssp. comata), grass
sand dropseed (Sporobolus cryptandrus), grass
Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis), grass

Community 4.1
Invaded Woody Community

The Invaded Woody Community or Eastern Redcedar (Juniperus virginiana) Community (4.1) has at least 15 percent canopy cover consisting of trees generally 5 feet or taller. Encroaching trees are primarily eastern redcedar. Additional woody cover from deciduous trees and shrubs may be present. In the absence of fire and brush management, this ecological site is very susceptible to eastern redcedar seedling invasion, especially when adjacent to a seed source. Eastern redcedar can eventually dominate the site resulting in a closed canopy monoculture which drastically reduces forage production and which has limited value for either livestock grazing or wildlife habitat. With long-term fire suppression, this plant community will develop extensive ladder fuels which can lead to a removal of most tree species with a wildfire. With properly managed intensive grazing, encroachment of deciduous trees will typically be minimal; however, this will not impact encroachment of coniferous species. The herbaceous component decreases proportionately in relation to the percent canopy cover, with the reduction being greater under a coniferous overstory. Eastern redcedar control can usually be accomplished with prescribed burning while the trees are six feet tall or less and fine fuel production is greater than 1,500 pounds per acres. Larger red cedars can also be controlled with prescribed burning, but successful application requires the use of specifically designed ignition and holding techniques (https://www.loesscanyonsburning group.com). Resprouting brush must be chemically treated immediately after mechanical removal to achieve effective treatment. The forb component will initially increase following tree removal. To prevent return to a woody dominated community, ongoing brush management such as hand cutting, chemical spot treatments, or periodic prescribed burning is required. This plant community is resistant to change and resilient given normal disturbances. In higher canopy cover situations, the soil erosion will increase in relation the plant community from which this plant community originated. The hydrologic function is also significantly altered under higher canopy cover. Infiltration is reduced and runoff is typically increased because of a lack of herbaceous cover and the rooting structure provided by the herbaceous species. Total annual production during an average year varies significantly, depending on the production level prior to encroachment and the percentage of canopy cover.

Dominant plant species

eastern redcedar (Juniperus virginiana), tree
smooth sumac (Rhus glabra), shrub
needle and thread (Hesperostipa comata ssp. comata), grass
blue grama (Bouteloua gracilis), grass
sand dropseed (Sporobolus cryptandrus), grass
Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis), grass

State 5
Sodbusted State

The threshold to the Sodbusted State (5) is crossed as a result of mechanical disturbance to facilitate production agriculture. If farming operations are suspended, the site can be seeded to native grasses resulting in the Reseeded Native Grass Community (5.1), be seeded to a tame pasture forage mixture resulting in the Seeded Pasture Community (5.2) or be abandoned with no seeding which will result in the Natural Reclamation Community (5.3). Permanent alterations of the soil, plant community, and hydrologic cycle make restoration to the Reference State (1) extremely difficult, if not impossible.

Community 5.1
Reseeded Native Grass Community

The Reseeded Native Grass Community (5.1) does not contain native remnants, and varies considerably depending upon the seed mixture, the degree of soil erosion, the age of the stand, fertility management, and past grazing management. Native rangeland and grasslands seeded to native species are ecologically different and should be managed separately. Factors such as functional group, species, stand density, and improved varieties all impact the production level and palatability of the seedings. Species diversity is often limited, and when grazed in conjunction with native rangelands, uneven forage utilization may occur. Total annual production during an average year varies significantly depending upon precipitation, management, and grass species seeded. Prescribed grazing including appropriate utilization levels, adequate growing-season recovery periods, and timing of grazing that favor the productivity, health, and vigor of the seeded species is required to maintain this community. Periodic prescribed burning and brush management may also be needed.

Community 5.2
Seeded Pasture Community

The Seeded Pasture Community (5.2) does not contain native remnants and varies considerably depending upon the extent of soil erosion, the species seeded, the quality of the stand that was established, the age of the stand, and management of the stand since establishment. There are several factors that make seeded tame pasture a different grazing resource than native rangeland and land seeded to a native grass mixture. Factors such as species selected, stand density, improved varieties, and harvest efficiency all impact production levels and palatability. Species diversity on seeded tame pasture is often limited to a few species. When seeded pasture and native rangelands or seeded pasture and seeded rangeland are in the same grazing unit, uneven forage utilization will occur. Improve forage utilization and stand longevity by managing this community separately from native rangelands or land seeded to native grass species. Total annual production during an average year varies significantly depending on the level of management and species seeded. Improved varieties of warm-season or cool-season grasses are recommended for optimum forage production. Fertilization, weed management, and prescribed grazing including appropriate utilization levels, adequate growing-season recovery periods, and timing of grazing that favor the productivity, health, and vigor of the seeded species are required to maintain this community. Periodic prescribed burning and brush management may also be needed.

Community 5.3
Natural Reclamation Community

The Natural Reclamation Community (5.3) consists of annual and perennial early successional species. Perennial threeawns, sand dropseed, and annual grasses are common species. These sites have been farmed and abandoned without being reseeded. Soil organic matter and carbon reserves are reduced, soil structure is changed, and a plowpan or compacted layer can form, which decreases water infiltration. Residual synthetic chemicals may remain from farming operations. In early successional stages, this community is not stable. The hazard of erosion is a resource concern. Total annual production during an average year varies significantly depending on the succession stage of the plant community and any management applied to the system.

Transition T1A
State 1 to 2

The Reference State (1) transitions to the Degraded Native Grass State (2) in response to long-term (greater than ten years), heavy, repeated defoliation of the key forage species by grazing or haying. This change typically occurs with long-term heavy, continuous season long grazing but heavy rotational grazing without adequate recovery periods may also cause this transition. The Reference State loses a significant proportion of warm-season, tall- and midgrasses and crosses a threshold to the Degraded Native Grass State. Deep rooted plants are replaced by shallow rooted, sod- forming grasses which tend to form root mats and water infiltration is reduced. Forage production and plant species diversity has declined. Initially, the plant community will be a mosaic, with shortgrass and tallgrass communities intermingled but as the management continues the plant community becomes dominated by warm-season shortgrasses and rhizomatous cool-season grasses.

Transition T1B
State 1 to 3

The Reference State (1) transitions to the Invaded Grass State (3) in response to long-term (greater than ten years), heavy, repeated defoliation (grazing) of the key forage species during the summer months. This change typically occurs with long-term heavy, continuous seasonal grazing during the summer but heavy rotational grazing without adequate recovery periods may also cause this transition. Removal of livestock grazing for an extended period of time (more than 10 years) with no fire will also cause the plant community to transition to one dominated by non-native, cool-season grasses. The Reference State loses a significant proportion of warm-season grasses and crosses a threshold to the Invaded Grass State. Deep rooted plants are replaced by shallow rooted, non-native, sod-forming grasses which tend to form root mats and water infiltration is reduced. Forage production and plant species diversity has declined. Initially, the plant community will be a mosaic, native and non-native species intermingled but as the management continues, the plant community becomes dominated by non-native grasses.

Transition T1C
State 1 to 4

Long-term (more than ten years) disruption of the natural fire regime and the encroachment of invasive exotic and native woody species with no woody species management can cause the Reference State (1) to transition to the Invaded Woody State (4).

Transition T1D
State 1 to 5

The Reference State (1) has been significantly altered by tillage to facilitate production agriculture. When the land is no longer cropped, the resulting state is the Sodbusted State (5). The disruption to the plant community, the soil, and the hydrology of the system prevent restoration to a true Reference State.

Restoration pathway R2A
State 2 to 1

Long-term (more than 15 years) prescribed grazing with adequate growing season recovery periods will move the Degraded Native Grass State (2) toward the Reference State (1). The amount of time required for and feasibility of this restoration depends upon the abundance of warm-season tall- and midgrasses and cool-season bunch grasses remaining in the plant community and the amount of degradation to the soils and hydrologic function. This restoration may not be feasible.

Transition T2A
State 2 to 3

The Degraded Native Grass State (2) transitions to the Invaded Grass State (3) in response to long-term (greater than ten years), heavy, repeated defoliation of the key forage species by grazing or haying. This change typically occurs with long-term heavy, continuous grazing during the summer months but heavy rotational grazing without adequate recovery periods may also cause this transition. As the Degraded Native Grass State loses a significant proportion of native grasses which are replaced by non-native grasses shallow rooted, sod- forming grasses begin to form root mats and water infiltration is reduced. Forage production and plant species diversity are substantially reduced. Initially, the plant community will be a mosaic, with native and non-native species intermingled but as the management continues the plant community becomes dominated by non-native grasses.

Transition T2B
State 2 to 4

Long-term (more than ten years) disruption of the natural fire regime and the encroachment of invasive exotic and native woody species with no woody species management can cause the Degraded Native Grass State (2) to transition to the Invaded Woody State (4).

Transition T2C
State 2 to 5

The Degraded Native Grass State (2) has been significantly altered by tillage to facilitate production agriculture. When the land is no longer cropped, the resulting state is the Sodbusted State (5). The disruption to the plant community, degradation of the soil, and the negative impact to the hydrology of the system prevent a true restoration.

Restoration pathway R3A
State 3 to 1

Long-term (more than 15 years) prescribed grazing with adequate growing season recovery periods may move the Invaded Grass State (3) toward the Reference State (1). The amount of time required for and feasibility of this restoration depends upon the abundance of warm-season tall- and midgrasses and cool-season bunch grasses remaining in the plant community and the amount of degradation to the soils and hydrologic function. This restoration may not be feasible.

Restoration pathway R3B
State 3 to 2

Long-term (more than 15 years) prescribed grazing with adequate growing season recovery periods may move the Invaded Grass State (3) toward the Degraded Native Grass State (2). This restoration may not be feasible. The feasibility of this restoration depends upon the abundance of native grasses remaining in the plant community and the amount of degradation to the soils and hydrologic function.

Transition T3A
State 3 to 4

Long-term (more than ten years) disruption of the natural fire regime and the encroachment of invasive exotic and native woody species with no woody species management can cause the Invaded Grass State (3) to transition to the Invaded Woody State (4).

Transition T3B
State 3 to 5

The Invaded Grass State (3) has been significantly altered by tillage to facilitate production agriculture. When the land is no longer cropped, the resulting state is the Sodbusted State (5). The disruption to the plant community, the soil, and the hydrology of the system prevent restoration to the Invaded Grass State.

Restoration pathway R4A
State 4 to 1

The Invaded Woody State (4) can be restored to the Reference State (1) through prescribed burning, wildfire, timber harvest, or brush management. The forb component may initially increase following tree removal. Ongoing brush management such as hand cutting, chemical spot treatments, or periodic prescribed burning is required to prevent a return to the Invaded Woody State. The heavier the existing canopy cover, the greater the energy input required to return to the Native/Invaded Grass State. The amount of time required for the herbaceous vegetation of the Reference State to return depends upon the severity and duration of the encroachment. Land that transitioned to the Invaded Woody State from the Degraded Native Grass State (2), the Invaded Grass State (3), or the Sodbusted State (5) cannot be restored to the Reference State through the removal of woody species as the native plant community, soils, and hydrologic function have been too severely impacted for that restoration to occur with brush management alone.

Restoration pathway R4B
State 4 to 2

The Invaded Woody State (4) can be restored to the Degraded Native Grass State (2) through prescribed burning, wildfire, timber harvest, or brush management. The forb component may initially increase following tree removal. Ongoing brush management such as hand cutting, chemical spot treatments, or periodic prescribed burning is required to prevent a return to the Invaded Woody State. The heavier the existing canopy cover, the greater the energy input required to return to the Native/Invaded Grass State. The amount of time required for the herbaceous vegetation of the Degraded Native State to return depends upon the severity and duration of the encroachment. Land that transitioned to the Invaded Woody State from the Degraded Native Grass State cannot be restored to the Reference State (1) through the removal of woody species as the native plant community, soils and hydrology have been too severely impacted for tat restoration to occur with the remove of brush alone.

Restoration pathway R4C
State 4 to 3

The Invaded Woody State (4) can be restored to the Invaded Grass State (3) through prescribed burning, wildfire, timber harvest, or brush management. The forb component may initially increase following tree removal. Ongoing brush management such as hand cutting, chemical spot treatments, or periodic prescribed burning is required to prevent a return to the Invaded Woody State. The heavier the existing canopy cover, the greater the energy input required to return to the Invaded Grass State. The amount of time required for this restoration to occur depends on the severity and duration of the encroachment. Land that transitioned to the Invaded Woody State from the Invaded Grass State cannot be restored to the Reference State (1) or the Degraded Native Grass State (2) through the removal of woody species as the native plant community, soils, and hydrologic function have been too severely impacted for that restoration to occur with removal of brush alone.

Restoration pathway R4D
State 4 to 5

The Invaded Woody State (4) can be restored to the Sodbusted State (5) through prescribed burning, wildfire, timber harvest, or brush management. The forb component may initially increase following tree removal. Ongoing brush management such as hand cutting, chemical spot treatments, or periodic prescribed burning is required to prevent a return to the Invaded Woody State. The heavier the existing canopy cover, the greater the energy input required to return to the Native/Invaded Grass State. Land that transitioned to the Invaded Woody State from the Sodbusted State cannot be restored to the Reference State (1) or the Degraded Native Grass State (2) through the removal of woody species as the native plant community, soils, and hydrologic function have been too severely impacted for that restoration to occur.

Transition T5A
State 5 to 4

Long-term (more than ten years) disruption of the natural fire regime and the encroachment of invasive exotic and native woody species with no woody species management can cause the Sodbusted State (5) to transition to the Invaded Woody State (4).

Additional community tables

Table 9. Community 1.1 plant community composition

Group	Common name	Symbol	Scientific name	Annual production (lb/acre)	Foliar cover (%)
Grass/Grasslike
1	Warm-Season Tallgrass			1500–1950
	sand bluestem	ANHA	Andropogon hallii	600–1050	–
	prairie sandreed	CALO	Calamovilfa longifolia	450–750	–
	switchgrass	PAVI2	Panicum virgatum	300–600	–
	Indiangrass	SONU2	Sorghastrum nutans	150–450	–
	big bluestem	ANGE	Andropogon gerardii	0–300	–
	Grass, perennial	2GP	Grass, perennial	0–150	–
2	Warm-Season Midgrass			450–750
	little bluestem	SCSC	Schizachyrium scoparium	300–750	–
	sand lovegrass	ERTR3	Eragrostis trichodes	150–300	–
	sideoats grama	BOCU	Bouteloua curtipendula	0–150	–
	sand dropseed	SPCR	Sporobolus cryptandrus	0–150	–
	Grass, perennial	2GP	Grass, perennial	0–90	–
	purple lovegrass	ERSP	Eragrostis spectabilis	0–90	–
3	Warm-Season Shortgrass			90–300
	blue grama	BOGR2	Bouteloua gracilis	90–300	–
	hairy grama	BOHI2	Bouteloua hirsuta	0–150	–
	thin paspalum	PASE5	Paspalum setaceum	0–150	–
	Grass, perennial	2GP	Grass, perennial	0–90	–
4	Cool-Season Bunchgrass			300–450
	needle and thread	HECOC8	Hesperostipa comata ssp. comata	150–300	–
	porcupinegrass	HESP11	Hesperostipa spartea	90–300	–
	Scribner's rosette grass	DIOLS	Dichanthelium oligosanthes var. scribnerianum	30–150	–
	prairie Junegrass	KOMA	Koeleria macrantha	30–150	–
	Grass, perennial	2GP	Grass, perennial	0–90	–
5	Cool-Season Rhizomatous Grass			30–150
	western wheatgrass	PASM	Pascopyrum smithii	30–150	–
6	Grass-like			30–150
	sedge	CAREX	Carex	30–150	–
Forb
7	Forbs			150–300
	Forb, perennial	2FP	Forb, perennial	0–150	–
	Forb, annual	2FA	Forb, annual	0–60	–
	white heath aster	SYER	Symphyotrichum ericoides	0–60	–
	Cuman ragweed	AMPS	Ambrosia psilostachya	0–60	–
	dotted blazing star	LIPU	Liatris punctata	0–60	–
	scaly blazing star	LISQ	Liatris squarrosa	0–60	–
	rush skeletonplant	LYJU	Lygodesmia juncea	0–30	–
	Carolina puccoon	LICA13	Lithospermum caroliniense	0–30	–
	beardtongue	PENST	Penstemon	0–30	–
	silverleaf Indian breadroot	PEAR6	Pediomelum argophyllum	0–30	–
	upright prairie coneflower	RACO3	Ratibida columnifera	0–30	–
	stiff goldenrod	OLRI	Oligoneuron rigidum	0–30	–
	Missouri goldenrod	SOMI2	Solidago missouriensis	0–30	–
	tarragon	ARDR4	Artemisia dracunculus	0–30	–
	thistle	CIRSI	Cirsium	0–30	–
	stiff sunflower	HEPA19	Helianthus pauciflorus	0–30	–
	prairie spiderwort	TROC	Tradescantia occidentalis	0–30	–
	hoary verbena	VEST	Verbena stricta	0–30	–
Shrub/Vine
8	Shrub			30–150
	leadplant	AMCA6	Amorpha canescens	0–90	–
	Shrub (>.5m)	2SHRUB	Shrub (>.5m)	30–90	–
	rose	ROSA5	Rosa	0–60	–
	western sandcherry	PRPUB	Prunus pumila var. besseyi	0–30	–

Table 10. Community 1.2 plant community composition

Group	Common name	Symbol	Scientific name	Annual production (lb/acre)	Foliar cover (%)
Grass/Grasslike
1	Warm-Season Tallgrass			1250–1625
	prairie sandreed	CALO	Calamovilfa longifolia	500–750	–
	switchgrass	PAVI2	Panicum virgatum	375–625	–
	sand bluestem	ANHA	Andropogon hallii	250–500	–
	Indiangrass	SONU2	Sorghastrum nutans	125–375	–
	big bluestem	ANGE	Andropogon gerardii	0–250	–
	Grass, perennial	2GP	Grass, perennial	0–125	–
2	Warm-Season Midgrass			500–875
	little bluestem	SCSC	Schizachyrium scoparium	500–750	–
	sand dropseed	SPCR	Sporobolus cryptandrus	0–250	–
	purple lovegrass	ERSP	Eragrostis spectabilis	0–125	–
	Grass, perennial	2GP	Grass, perennial	0–125	–
3	Warm-Season Shortgrass			125–250
	blue grama	BOGR2	Bouteloua gracilis	25–250	–
	thin paspalum	PASE5	Paspalum setaceum	0–125	–
	hairy grama	BOHI2	Bouteloua hirsuta	0–50	–
	Grass, perennial	2GP	Grass, perennial	0–50	–
4	Cool-Season Bunchgrass			125–375
	needle and thread	HECOC8	Hesperostipa comata ssp. comata	125–250	–
	porcupinegrass	HESP11	Hesperostipa spartea	25–125	–
	Scribner's rosette grass	DIOLS	Dichanthelium oligosanthes var. scribnerianum	25–125	–
	prairie Junegrass	KOMA	Koeleria macrantha	25–125	–
	Grass, perennial	2GP	Grass, perennial	0–50	–
5	Cool-Season Rhizomatous Grass			25–250
	western wheatgrass	PASM	Pascopyrum smithii	25–250	–
6	Grass-like			25–125
	sedge	CAREX	Carex	25–125	–
9	Non-Native Grass			0–125
	Kentucky bluegrass	POPR	Poa pratensis	0–125	–
	smooth brome	BRIN2	Bromus inermis	0–125	–
	field brome	BRAR5	Bromus arvensis	0–50	–
Forb
7	Forb			125–250
	Forb, perennial	2FP	Forb, perennial	0–75	–
	Forb, annual	2FA	Forb, annual	0–75	–
	Cuman ragweed	AMPS	Ambrosia psilostachya	0–50	–
	dotted blazing star	LIPU	Liatris punctata	0–50	–
	scaly blazing star	LISQ	Liatris squarrosa	0–50	–
	rush skeletonplant	LYJU	Lygodesmia juncea	0–25	–
	beardtongue	PENST	Penstemon	0–25	–
	silverleaf Indian breadroot	PEAR6	Pediomelum argophyllum	0–25	–
	upright prairie coneflower	RACO3	Ratibida columnifera	0–25	–
	stiff goldenrod	OLRI	Oligoneuron rigidum	0–25	–
	Missouri goldenrod	SOMI2	Solidago missouriensis	0–25	–
	prairie spiderwort	TROC	Tradescantia occidentalis	0–25	–
	hoary verbena	VEST	Verbena stricta	0–25	–
	pussytoes	ANTEN	Antennaria	0–25	–
	tarragon	ARDR4	Artemisia dracunculus	0–25	–
	thistle	CIRSI	Cirsium	0–25	–
	Carolina puccoon	LICA13	Lithospermum caroliniense	0–25	–
Shrub/Vine
8	Shrub			25–250
	leadplant	AMCA6	Amorpha canescens	0–125	–
	Grass, perennial	2GP	Grass, perennial	0–125	–
	western sandcherry	PRPUB	Prunus pumila var. besseyi	0–25	–
	rose	ROSA5	Rosa	0–15	–

Table 11. Community 2.1 plant community composition

Group	Common name	Symbol	Scientific name	Annual production (lb/acre)	Foliar cover (%)
Grass/Grasslike
1	Warm-Season Tallgrass			85–340
	prairie sandreed	CALO	Calamovilfa longifolia	85–255	–
	switchgrass	PAVI2	Panicum virgatum	0–85	–
	big bluestem	ANGE	Andropogon gerardii	0–85	–
	sand bluestem	ANHA	Andropogon hallii	0–85	–
	Grass, perennial	2GP	Grass, perennial	0–34	–
2	Warm-Season Midgrass			255–425
	little bluestem	SCSC	Schizachyrium scoparium	85–255	–
	sand dropseed	SPCR	Sporobolus cryptandrus	85–255	–
	purple lovegrass	ERSP	Eragrostis spectabilis	85–170	–
	Grass, perennial	2GP	Grass, perennial	0–34	–
3	Warm-Season Shortgrass			340–510
	blue grama	BOGR2	Bouteloua gracilis	340–510	–
	hairy grama	BOHI2	Bouteloua hirsuta	0–85	–
	thin paspalum	PASE5	Paspalum setaceum	0–85	–
	Grass, perennial	2GP	Grass, perennial	0–34	–
4	Cool-Season Bunchgrass			170–340
	needle and thread	HECOC8	Hesperostipa comata ssp. comata	0–170	–
	Scribner's rosette grass	DIOLS	Dichanthelium oligosanthes var. scribnerianum	85–170	–
	prairie Junegrass	KOMA	Koeleria macrantha	17–170	–
	porcupinegrass	HESP11	Hesperostipa spartea	0–85	–
	Grass, perennial	2GP	Grass, perennial	0–34	–
5	Cool-Season Rhizomatous Grass			170–340
	western wheatgrass	PASM	Pascopyrum smithii	170–340	–
6	Grass-like			85–170
	sedge	CAREX	Carex	–	–
9	Non-Native Grass			85–340
	smooth brome	BRIN2	Bromus inermis	0–170	–
	Kentucky bluegrass	POPR	Poa pratensis	0–170	–
	cheatgrass	BRTE	Bromus tectorum	0–85	–
Forb
7	Forb			85–255
	Cuman ragweed	AMPS	Ambrosia psilostachya	0–51	–
	white heath aster	SYER	Symphyotrichum ericoides	0–51	–
	tarragon	ARDR4	Artemisia dracunculus	0–34	–
	scaly blazing star	LISQ	Liatris squarrosa	0–34	–
	dotted blazing star	LIPU	Liatris punctata	0–34	–
	Forb, perennial	2FP	Forb, perennial	0–34	–
	Forb, annual	2FA	Forb, annual	0–34	–
	rush skeletonplant	LYJU	Lygodesmia juncea	0–17	–
	beardtongue	PENST	Penstemon	0–17	–
	slimflower scurfpea	PSTE5	Psoralidium tenuiflorum	0–17	–
	palmleaf Indian breadroot	PEDI9	Pediomelum digitatum	0–17	–
	stiff goldenrod	OLRI	Oligoneuron rigidum	0–17	–
	upright prairie coneflower	RACO3	Ratibida columnifera	0–17	–
	Missouri goldenrod	SOMI2	Solidago missouriensis	0–17	–
	thistle	CIRSI	Cirsium	0–17	–
	Rocky Mountain beeplant	CLSE	Cleome serrulata	0–17	–
	common sunflower	HEAN3	Helianthus annuus	0–17	–
	prairie spiderwort	TROC	Tradescantia occidentalis	0–17	–
	hoary verbena	VEST	Verbena stricta	0–17	–
	pussytoes	ANTEN	Antennaria	0–17	–
Shrub/Vine
8	Shrub			17–85
	Shrub (>.5m)	2SHRUB	Shrub (>.5m)	0–85	–
	western sandcherry	PRPUB	Prunus pumila var. besseyi	0–17	–
	rose	ROSA5	Rosa	0–17	–

Table 12. Community 3.1 plant community composition

Group	Common name	Symbol	Scientific name	Annual production (lb/acre)	Foliar cover (%)
Grass/Grasslike
1	Warm-Season Tallgrass			0–60
	prairie sandreed	CALO	Calamovilfa longifolia	0–60	–
	Grass, perennial	2GP	Grass, perennial	0–12	–
2	Warm-Season Midgrass			120–300
	sand dropseed	SPCR	Sporobolus cryptandrus	120–240	–
	sand lovegrass	ERTR3	Eragrostis trichodes	0–120	–
	little bluestem	SCSC	Schizachyrium scoparium	0–60	–
	Grass, perennial	2GP	Grass, perennial	0–12	–
3	Warm-Season Shortgrass			60–180
	blue grama	BOGR2	Bouteloua gracilis	60–180	–
	hairy grama	BOHI2	Bouteloua hirsuta	0–60	–
	Grass, perennial	2GP	Grass, perennial	0–12	–
4	Cool-Season Bunchgrass			120–240
	needle and thread	HECOC8	Hesperostipa comata ssp. comata	0–120	–
	Scribner's rosette grass	DIOLS	Dichanthelium oligosanthes var. scribnerianum	60–120	–
	prairie Junegrass	KOMA	Koeleria macrantha	12–60	–
	porcupinegrass	HESP11	Hesperostipa spartea	0–60	–
	Grass, perennial	2GP	Grass, perennial	0–12	–
5	Cool-Season Rhizomatous grass			12–120
	western wheatgrass	PASM	Pascopyrum smithii	12–120	–
6	Grass-like			60–120
	sedge	CAREX	Carex	60–120	–
9	Non-Native Grass			180–420
	Kentucky bluegrass	POPR	Poa pratensis	120–240	–
	smooth brome	BRIN2	Bromus inermis	0–180	–
	cheatgrass	BRTE	Bromus tectorum	0–120	–
Forb
7	Forb			60–240
	Cuman ragweed	AMPS	Ambrosia psilostachya	12–60	–
	tarragon	ARDR4	Artemisia dracunculus	0–60	–
	thistle	CIRSI	Cirsium	0–36	–
	Rocky Mountain beeplant	CLSE	Cleome serrulata	0–36	–
	common sunflower	HEAN3	Helianthus annuus	0–36	–
	white heath aster	SYER	Symphyotrichum ericoides	0–36	–
	hoary verbena	VEST	Verbena stricta	0–36	–
	Forb, annual	2FA	Forb, annual	0–36	–
	Forb, perennial	2FP	Forb, perennial	0–24	–
	pussytoes	ANTEN	Antennaria	0–12	–
	rush skeletonplant	LYJU	Lygodesmia juncea	0–12	–
	stiff goldenrod	OLRI	Oligoneuron rigidum	0–12	–
	palmleaf Indian breadroot	PEDI9	Pediomelum digitatum	0–12	–
	slimflower scurfpea	PSTE5	Psoralidium tenuiflorum	0–12	–
	Missouri goldenrod	SOMI2	Solidago missouriensis	0–12	–
Shrub/Vine
8	Shrub			12–60
	Shrub (>.5m)	2SHRUB	Shrub (>.5m)	0–60	–
	rose	ROSA5	Rosa	0–12	–

Interpretations

Animal community

LIVESTOCK - GRAZING INTERPRETATIONS:
Grazing by domestic livestock is one of the major income-producing industries in the area. Rangeland in this area may provide year-long forage for cattle, sheep, or horses. During the dormant period, the protein levels of the forage may be lower than the minimum needed to meet livestock (primarily cattle and sheep) requirements. The following table lists suggested stocking rates for cattle under continuous season-long grazing under normal growing conditions. These are conservative estimates that should be used only as guidelines in the initial stages of the conservation planning process. Often, the current plant composition does not entirely match any particular plant community (as described in this ecological site description). Because of this, a field visit is recommended, in all cases, to document plant composition and production. More precise carrying capacity estimates should eventually be calculated using this information along with animal preference data, particularly when grazers other than cattle are involved. With consultation of the land manager, more intensive grazing management may result in improved harvest efficiencies and increased carrying capacity.

Production and Carrying Capacity*
►Reference Community (1.1)
Average Production (lb./acre, air-dry): 3,000
Stocking Rate (AUM/acres): 0.82
►Degraded Native Grass Community (1.2)
Average Production (lb./acre, air-dry): 2,500
Stocking Rate (AUM/acres): 0.69
►Warm-Season Shortgrass/Cool-Season Grass Community (2.1)
Average Production (lb./acre, air-dry):1,700
Stocking Rate (AUM/acre): 0.47
►Non-Native Grass Community (3.1)
Average Production (lb./acre, air-dry): 1,200
Stocking Rate (AUM/acre): 0.33

*Based upon the following conditions: continuous season-long grazing by cattle under average growing conditions, 25 percent harvest efficiency. Air dry forage requirements based on 3 percent of animal body weight, or 912 lbs/AU/month.

WILDLIFE INTERPRETATIONS:
The Sandhills Prairie ecosystem consists of diverse grassland habitats interspersed with varying densities of Sandhills lakes and limited woody riparian corridors. The majority of this ecosystem is intact. These habitats historically provided critical life cycle components for the grassland birds, prairie dogs, and herds of roaming bison, elk, and pronghorn. Bobcats, wolves, and mountain lions occupied the apex predator niche. Diverse populations of small mammals and insects still provide a bountiful prey base for raptors and omnivores such as coyotes, foxes, raccoons, and opossums. In addition, a wide variety of reptiles and amphibians thrive in this landscape.

The Sandhills Prairie was a disturbance-driven ecosystem with fire, herbivory, and climate functioning as the primary disturbances. Following European settlement, elimination of fire and overgrazing altered the appearance and functionality of the ecosystem. Bison and prairie dogs were historically keystone species, but free-roaming bison herds have been extirpated in this region. The loss of bison and fire as ecological drivers influenced the character of the remaining native grasslands and the habitats that they provide. Fragmentation in MLRA 65 is limited and area sensitive grassland birds such as greater prairie chicken and sharp-tailed grouse continue to thrive here. The mosaic of sites continues to provide habitat for species requiring unfragmented grasslands, providing upland nesting habitat for grassland birds and game birds, nesting and escape cover for waterfowl, forbs and insects for brood-rearing habitat, and a forage source for small and large herbivores.

In the absence of fire and grazing, heavy litter buildup can occur on this site hindering the movement of young birds, especially quail and prairie chickens. Increased litter buildup results in decreased forb abundance and diversity and an accompanying decrease in insects, a critical food source for young birds. Introduced species such as cheatgrass, Kentucky bluegrass, and introduced forbs may be present but degradation of the biotic integrity from non-native species in this precipitation zone on ecological site is limited.

Disruption of the natural fire regime and accompanying woody encroachment is the greatest threat to ecosystem dynamics in this MLRA. Lack of fire facilitates tree and shrub encroachment degrades grassland habitats and creates habitats that favor generalist species such as American robin and mourning dove. Woody species provide perches for raptors, increasing the predation mortality on native bird populations. Woody encroachment is most severe in the eastern half of the MLRA but is a threat across the MLRA.

Hydrological functions

Water is the principal factor limiting forage production on well drained portions of the Sandy 22-25" PZ ecological site. Soils on this site are in Hydrologic Soil Group A and B. Some areas have high water tables. On well drained portions of this site, infiltration potential is high. Significant runoff is expected to occur only during intense storms (refer to Section 4, NRCS National Engineering Handbook for runoff quantities and hydrologic curves).

For the interpretive plant community, rills and gullies should not typically be present. Water flow patterns should be barely distinguishable if at all present in well drained areas. Pedestals are only slightly present in association with bunchgrasses such as little bluestem. Litter typically falls in place, and signs of movement are not common. Chemical and physical crusts are rare to non-existent. Cryptogamic crusts are present but only cover 1 to 2 percent of the soil surface. Overall, this site has the appearance of being extremely stable and productive.

Recreational uses

This site provides hunting opportunities for upland game species. The wide variety of plants which bloom from spring until fall have an esthetic value that appeals to visitors.

Wood products

No appreciable wood products are present on the site.

Other products

Seed harvest of native plant species can provide additional income on this site.

Other information

Revision Notes: “This PROVISIONAL ecological site concept has been through the Quality Control and Quality Assurance processes to ensure that the site meets the NESH standards for a provisional ecological site that provides basic compiled information in one location. This site should not be considered an Approved ESD until further data entry and editing is completed.

Site Development and Testing Plan:
Future work is needed to validate the information in this Provisional Ecological Site Description. Additional data collection and evaluation may also be needed to develop this ESD to the Approved, then Correlated level. This could include field activities to collect low, medium and high intensity sampling, soil correlations, and analysis of that data. Field reviews of the project plan should be done by soil scientists and vegetation specialists. A final field review, peer review, quality control, and quality assurance reviews of the ESD will be needed to produce the final document. Annual reviews of the Project Plan are to be conducted by the Ecological Site Technical Team. The project plan is ES-R065XY013NE - MLRA 65.

Supporting information

Inventory data references

Information presented here has been derived from NRCS clipping data and other inventory data. Field observations from range trained personnel was also used. Those involved in developing this site include Dave Cook, Rangeland Management Specialist, NRCS; Dwight Hale, Engineer, NRCS; Sheila Luoma, Resource Conservationist, NRCS; Marla Shelbourn, Rangeland Management Specialist, NRCS; Dave Steffen, Rangeland Management Specialist, NRCS.

There are 7 SCS-RANGE-417 records available from Custer, Holt, Lincoln, Loup, and Wheeler counties. The sample period was from 1978 to 1983.

Other references

Bleed, A. S., Flowerday, C. A., 1998. An Atlas of the Sand Hills. Conservation and Survey Division, Institute of Agriculture and Natural Resources, University of Nebraska-Lincoln.

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service. 2003. National Range and Pasture Handbook. (https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/national-range-and-pasture-handbook)

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service. National Water and Climate Center. (http://www.wcc.nrcs.usda.gov/climate).

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service. 2021b. National Soil Information System. (https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/resources/education-and-teaching
-materials/national-soil-information-system-nasis).

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service. 2021c. National soil survey handbook, title 430-VI. (http://soils.usda.gov/technical/handbook/). Soil Survey Staff. 2021.

Web soil survey. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service. (https://websoilsurvey.sc.egov.usda.gov/)

USDA, NRCS. 2023. The PLANTS Database (http://plants.usda.gov, 12/27/2023). National Plant Data Team, Greensboro, NC USA.

USDA, NRCS, various published Soil Surveys

Site Development and Testing Plan:
Future work is needed to validate the information in this Provisional Ecological Site Description. Additional data collection and evaluation may also be needed to develop this ESD to the Approved, then Correlated level. This could include field activities to collect low, medium and high intensity sampling, soil correlations, and analysis of that data. Field reviews of the project plan should be done by soil scientists and vegetation specialists. A final field review, peer review, quality control, and quality assurance reviews of the ESD will be needed to produce the final document.

The State and Transitional Model and corresponding pathways and associated vegetative communities will need to be reviewed and upgraded to adhere to the new guidelines.
Annual reviews of the Project Plan are to be conducted by the Ecological Site Technical Team.

Contributors

Kim Stine
Doug Whisenhunt
Nadine Bishop

Approval

Suzanne Mayne-Kinney, 2/04/2025

Rangeland health reference sheet

Interpreting Indicators of Rangeland Health is a qualitative assessment protocol used to determine ecosystem condition based on benchmark characteristics described in the Reference Sheet. A suite of 17 (or more) indicators are typically considered in an assessment. The ecological site(s) representative of an assessment location must be known prior to applying the protocol and must be verified based on soils and climate. Current plant community cannot be used to identify the ecological site.

Author(s)/participant(s)	Original Author: Stan Boltz. Version V participants: Dave Cook, Emily Helms, Jeff Nichols, Myra Richardson, Nadine Bishop
Contact for lead author	Jeff Nichols: jeffrey.nichols@usda.gov.
Date	11/30/2024
Approved by	Suzanne Mayne-Kinney
Approval date
Composition (Indicators 10 and 12) based on	Annual Production

Indicators

Number and extent of rills:
None. Rills are not expected on this site.
Presence of water flow patterns:
None. Water flow patterns are not expected on this site.
Number and height of erosional pedestals or terracettes:
None. Erosional pedestals or terracettes are not expected.
Bare ground from Ecological Site Description or other studies (rock, litter, lichen, moss, plant canopy are not bare ground):
Bare ground is typically 5 percent or less. Multi-year drought and/or wildfire can increase bare ground to 10 percent for up to two years following the disturbance.

Bare ground is exposed mineral soil that is not covered by vegetation (basal and/or foliar canopy), standing dead vegetation, gravel/rock, and visible biological crust (e.g., lichen, mosses, algae).
Number of gullies and erosion associated with gullies:
None. Gullies are not expected on this site.
Extent of wind scoured, blowouts and/or depositional areas:
None. Wind-scoured areas and depositional areas are not expected on this site.
Amount of litter movement (describe size and distance expected to travel):
Litter should fall in place. Slight amount of movement of fine litter from water is possible, but not normal. Litter movement from wind is not expected.
Soil surface (top few mm) resistance to erosion (stability values are averages - most sites will show a range of values):
Soil stability ratings should typically be 5 to 6, normally 6. Surface organic matter adheres to the soil surface. Soil surface fragments will typically retain structure indefinitely when dipped in distilled water.

Surface erosion by water rarely occurs due to rapid infiltration, but surface may be susceptible to wind erosion when vegetative cover is reduced due to multi-year drought, wildfire, or multi-year heavy grazing. Biological crusts may be present and may serve to provide resistance to erosion.
Soil surface structure and SOM content (include type of structure and A-horizon color and thickness):
The A-horizon should be 3 to 10 inches (10-25 cm) thick, with the deeper A-horizon occurring on interdunes and nearly level landscape positions. Soil colors range from grayish brown, dark grayish brown, to dark gray (values of 4 to 5) when dry and very dark grayish brown, dark grayish brown, or very dark brown (values of 2 to 3) when moist. Structure is typically granular.

The major soil series correlated to this ecological site include Hersh, Dunday, Anselmo, Valentine, Doger, and Ipage. Other soils correlated to the site are Sandose, Jansen, Boelus, Calamus, Brunswick, and Vetal.
Effect of community phase composition (relative proportion of different functional groups) and spatial distribution on infiltration and runoff:
The functional/structural groups provide a combination of rooting depths and structure which positively influences infiltration. Combination of shallow and deep rooted species (rhizomatous, warm-season tall- and midgrasses and tufted perennial cool season grasses) with fine and coarse roots positively influences infiltration.

The expected composition of the plant community is 80 t0o 90 percent perennial grasses and grass-likes, 5 to 10 percent forbs, and 1 to 10 percent shrubs. The perennial grass and grass-like component is made up of warm-season tallgrasses (50-65%); warm-season midgrasses (15-25%), cool-season bunchgrasses (10-15%); warm-season shortgrasses (3-10%); cool-season rhizomatous grasses (1-5%) and grass-likes (1-5%).
Presence and thickness of compaction layer (usually none; describe soil profile features which may be mistaken for compaction on this site):
None. Compaction layers should not be present.
Functional/Structural Groups (list in order of descending dominance by above-ground annual-production or live foliar cover using symbols: >>, >, = to indicate much greater than, greater than, and equal to):

Dominant:
Phase 1.1
1. Native, perennial, warm-season, tallgrass, 1500-1950 #/ac, 50-65%, 4 species minimum: sand bluestem, prairie sandreed, switchgrass, big bluestem, Indiangrass.

Phase 1.2
1. Native, perennial, warm-season, tallgrass, 1250-1650 #/ac, 50-65%, 4 species minimum: sand bluestem, prairie sandreed, switchgrass, big bluestem, Indiangrass.

2. Native, perennial, warm-season midgrass, 500-875 #/ac, 20-35%, 1 species minimum: little bluestem, sand dropseed, purple lovegrass.

Sub-dominant:
Phase 1.1
1. Native, perennial, warm-season midgrass, 450-750 #/ac, 15-25%, 2 species minimum: little bluestem, sand lovegrass, sand dropseed, sideoats grama, purple lovegrass.

2. Native, perennial, cool-season grass, 300-450 #/ac, 10-15%, 1 species minimum: needle and thread, porcupinegrass, prairie Junegrass, western wheatgras

Phase 1.2
1. Native, perennial, cool-season bunchgrass, 125-375 #/ac, 5-15%, 1 species minimum: needle and thread, porcupinegrass, prairie Junegrass, Scribner’s rosettegrass.

Other:
Minor - Phase 1.1
1. Native, perennial and annual forbs, 150-300 #, 5-10%: forbs present vary from location to location.

2. Native, perennial, warm-season shortgrass, 90-300 #/ ac, 3-10%: blue grama, hairy grama, Fendler threeawn, thin paspalum.

3. Native, perennial, cool-season rhizomatous grass, 30-150 #/ac, 1-5%: western wheatgrass.

4. Grass-likes, 30-150 #/ac, 1-5%: sedges.

5. Shrubs, 30-150 #/ac, 1-5%: leadplant rose, western sandcherry.

Minor - Phase 1.2
1. Native, perennial, warm-season shortgrass, 125-250 #/ac, 5-10%: blue grama, hairy grama, thin paspalum.

2. Native, perennial and annual forbs, 125-250 #/ac, 5-10%: forbs present vary from location to location.

3. Native, perennial, cool-season rhizomatous grass, 25-250 #/ac,1-10%: western wheatgrass

4. Shrubs, 25-250 #/ac, 1-10%: leadplant, rose, western sandcherry.

5. Grass-likes, 25-125 #/ac, 1-5%: sedges.

6. Non-native, cool-season grass, 0-125 #/ac, 0-5%: Kentucky bluegrass, cheatgrass.

Additional:
The Reference Community (1.1) includes eight functional/structural groups which are in order of relative abundance native, perennial, warm-season tallgrass; native perennial, warm-season midgrass; native, perennial cool-season grass; forb; native, perennial, warm-season shortgrass; cool-season rhizomatous grass=grass-like=shrub.

The At-Risk Community (1.2) includes nine functional/structural groups which include in order of relative abundance native, perennial, warm-season tallgrass; native, perennial, warm-season midgrass, native, perennial, cool-season bunchgrass; native, perennial, warm-season shortgrass; native forbs; native, perennial, cool-season rhizomatous grass; shrubs; grass-likes; non-native, cool-season grass.
Amount of plant mortality and decadence (include which functional groups are expected to show mortality or decadence):
Very little evidence of decadence or mortality. Bunch grasses have strong, healthy centers and shrubs have few dead stems. The exception is the potential of up to 15 percent mortality of warm-season bunch grasses during multi- year drought cycles.
Average percent litter cover (%) and depth ( in):
Plant litter cover is evenly distributed throughout the site and is expected to be 50 to 70 percent and at a depth of 0.25 to 0.50 inch (0.65-1.3 cm). Litter cover during and following drought can range from 40 to 50 percent.
Expected annual annual-production (this is TOTAL above-ground annual-production, not just forage annual-production):
The representative value (RV) for annual production is 3,000 pounds per acer on an air dry weight basis. Low and high production years should yield 2,300 and 3,000 pounds per acre respectively.
Potential invasive (including noxious) species (native and non-native). List species which BOTH characterize degraded states and have the potential to become a dominant or co-dominant species on the ecological site if their future establishment and growth is not actively controlled by management interventions. Species that become dominant for only one to several years (e.g., short-term response to drought or wildfire) are not invasive plants. Note that unlike other indicators, we are describing what is NOT expected in the reference state for the ecological site:
Annual bromes (cheatgrass and Japanese/field), leafy spurge, absinth wormwood, common mullein, Canada thistle, eastern red cedar, and Kentucky bluegrass are known invasives that have the potential to be dominant or co-dominant on the site. Consult the state noxious weed and state watch lists for potential invasive species on each ecological site.

NOTE: Invasive plants (for the purposes of the IIRH protocol) are plant species that are typically not found on the ecological site or should only be in trace or minor categories under the natural disturbance regime and have the potential to become a dominant or codominant species on the site if their establishment and growth are not actively controlled by natural disturbances or management interventions. Species listed characterize degraded states AND have the potential to become a dominant or co-dominant species.
Perennial plant reproductive capability:
All perennial species exhibit high vigor relative to recent weather conditions. Perennial grasses should have vigorous rhizomes or tillers; vegetative and reproductive structures are not stunted. All perennial species should be capable of reproducing annually.

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Ecosystem states

3. Invaded Grass State

4. Invaded Woody State

States 1, 5 and 2 (additional transitions)