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Ecological site R065XY024NE

Subirrigated

Last updated: 2/04/2025
Accessed: 04/07/2025

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General information

Provisional. A provisional ecological site description has undergone quality control and quality assurance review. It contains a working state and transition model and enough information to identify the ecological site.

Basemap provided by ESRI. Sources: Esri, HERE, DeLorme, Intermap, increment P Corp., GEBCO, USGS, FAO, NPS, NRCAN, GeoBase, IGN, Kadaster NL, Ordnance Survey, Esri Japan, METI, Esri China (Hong Kong), swisstopo, MapmyIndia, © OpenStreetMap contributors, and the GIS User Community.

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Figure 1. Mapped extent

Areas shown in blue indicate the maximum mapped extent of this ecological site. Other ecological sites likely occur within the highlighted areas. It is also possible for this ecological site to occur outside of highlighted areas if detailed soil survey has not been completed or recently updated.

MLRA notes

Major Land Resource Area (MLRA): 065X–Nebraska Sand Hills

The Nebraska Sand Hills (MLRA 65) is located in Nebraska (98 percent) and South Dakota (2 percent) and encompasses approximately 13.2 million acres (534,201 hectares) or 20,625 square miles (53,420 square kilometers). The largest town in the MLRA is North Platte, Nebraska and numerous small towns and villages are located within the MLRA, including the county seats of Arthur, Bartlett, Bassett, Brewster, Greeley, Hyannis, Mullen, Thedford, and Tryon, Nebraska. The Niobrara River is near the northern boundary while the North Platte River flows along the southwest boundary of the area. The North Loup, Middle Loup, Calamus, Snake, and Dismal Rivers and Long Pine Creek occur in the central and eastern portion of the area.

Fort Niobrara, Crescent Lake, and Valentine National Wildlife Refuges and portions of the Nebraska National Forest, including the Bessey Ranger District and Samuel R. McKelvie National Forest, are located within this MLRA. The Bessey Ranger District includes the largest human-planted forest in the United States and is home to the Bessey Tree Nursery which is listed on the National Register of Historic Places.

This MLRA is defined by an 8,000 year-old landscape of sand hills dominated by rolling to steep sand dunes with narrow, elongated, nearly level to steeply sloping valleys between the dunes. Dune heights range from 10 to 400 feet (3 to 130 meters) and slopes may exceed twenty-five percent. Dune complexes often extend for several miles in a northwest to southeast direction. These Quaternary sand dunes are derived from the underlying Tertiary Ogallala and Arikaree Groups, which formed when rivers deposited sediments from erosional detritus after the uplift of the Rocky Mountains to the west. The Nebraska Sand Hills are the largest sand dune area in the Western Hemisphere and one of the largest grass-stabilized dune regions in the world. The soils of the MLRA are principally derived from deep eolian sand.

The Ogallala aquifer underlies the MLRA and is the most extensive and heavily used aquifer of the high plains between the Rocky Mountains and Mississippi River. The aquifer is at its thickest in the Sand Hills which are a primary recharge are for the aquifer. Numerous small permanent and intermittent lakes and wetlands occur in the MLRA. While the dominant source of water for these lakes is precipitation, groundwater discharge is important to maintaining these lakes especially in drier years. A number of these lakes, especially in the western portion of the MLRA are alkaline.

Considered to be a western extension of the tallgrass prairie, the matrix vegetation is a unique mix of species that is sometimes identified as sandhills prairie. Sand bluestem, prairie sandreed, Indiangrass, switchgrass, sand lovegrass, little bluestem, and needle and thread are the primary grasses. Porcupinegrass is a significant cool-season grass in the eastern portion of the MLRA while blue grama and hairy grama are important warm-season grasses in the western portion due to differences in precipitation. Soils which have a high water table support a tallgrass prairie dominated by big bluestem, switchgrass, Indiangrass, prairie cordgrass, and a variety of grass-likes. The endangered plant blowout penstemon (Penstemon haydenii) is found in this MLRA.

More than ninety percent of the land in MLRA 65 is native grassland utilized by grazing livestock. Areas along streams and in subirrigated valleys are utilized for prairie hay. Wetlands, legume hay, and irrigated cropland make up the balance of the land area with corn being the principal irrigated crop.

Wildlife flourishes in this native grassland environment. Historically large bison herds occupied the landscape. White-tailed deer, mule deer, pronghorn, black tailed jackrabbit, and coyote are now the major mammalian species. Upland sandpiper, lark bunting, grasshopper sparrow, western meadowlark, long-billed curlew, sharp-tailed grouse, and greater prairie chicken are common avian species. The mosaic of grassland and wetlands provide excellent habitat for wading and shorebird species as well.

This landscape serves as a backdrop for a disturbance-driven ecosystem, which developed under the influences of herbivory, fire, and periodic long-term drought. Historically, these processes created a heterogeneous mosaic of plant communities and vegetative structure across the region. Any given site in this landscape experienced fire every six to ten years. Fires were caused by lightning strikes and also were set by Native Americans, who used fire for warfare, signaling, and to refresh the native grasses. Indigenous peoples understood the value of fire as a tool and that the highly palatable growth following a fire provided excellent forage for their horses and attracted grazing animals such as bison, elk, and pronghorn.

The natural fire regime has been disrupted by aggressive fire suppression policies which have facilitated woody species encroachment by both native and introduced shrubs and trees into the native prairie. The most common encroacher is eastern redcedar. While eastern redcedar is native to the landscape, it was present only in trace amounts due to the periodic fires. Widespread plantings of windbreaks with eastern redcedar as a primary component have provided a seed source for this aggressive woody plant causing encroachment into native grasslands, especially in the eastern and central Sand Hills. This encroachment causes significant forage loss for domestic livestock and degrades the native wildlife habit. Since it is not a root-sprouter, eastern redcedar is very susceptible to fire when under six feet tall making management with prescribed fire very effective when applied before trees reach this stage.

Classification relationships

►USDA-NRCS (2022)◄
Land Resource Region – G, Central Feed Grains and Livestock Region
Major Land Resource Area (MLRA) –65, Nebraska Sand Hills

►Fenneman (1916) Physiographic Regions ◄
Division – Interior Plains
Province – Great Plains
Section – High Plains

►USDA-USFS (2007) Ecoregions◄
Domain – Dry
Division – Temperate Steppe
Province – Great Plains Steppe (332)
Section – Mixed Grass Steppe

►EPA Ecoregions (Omernik 1997)◄
I – Great Plains (9)
II – West-Central Semi-Arid Prairies (9.3)
III – Nebraska Sandhills (44)
IV – Sandhills (44a), Alkaline Lakes Area (44b), Wet Meadow and Marsh Plain (44c), Lakes Area (44d)

Ecological site concept

The Subirrigated ecological site is a run-on site found on interdunes and stream valleys. Slopes range from 0 to 3 percent. The soils are very deep and primarily formed in eolian sand or sandy alluvium. The surface layer textures are typically fine sand, loamy fine sand or fine sandy loam. The surface layer ranges from 3 to 10 inches thick. Subsoil textures also range from fine sand to fine sandy loam. Soils are somewhat poorly drained. Permeability is moderately slow to rapid. Subirrigated sites have a seasonally high water table at 18 to 36 inches during a portion of the growing season.

The historic native vegetation of the Subirrigated ecological site is tallgrass prairie. Vegetation in the Reference Community (1.1) is dominated by warm- season tall- and midgrasses with a cool-season grass and grass-like understory. Dominant grasses include big bluestem, Indiangrass, little bluestem, and prairie cordgrass. This site is susceptible to invasion by non-native cool-season grasses.

Associated sites

R065XY011NE	Sandy 14-17" PZ The Sandy 14-17 PZ is often found adjacent to the Subirrigated ecological site but on a higher landscape position.
R065XY012NE	Sands 14-17" PZ The Sands 14-17 PZ may be found adjacent to the Subirrigated ecological site but on a higher landscape position.
R065XY022NE	Wet Land The Wet Land ecological site is often found interspersed with Subirrigated ecological sites in interdunes and stream valleys but on a lower landscape position.
R065XY023NE	Wet Subirrigated The Wet Subirrigated ecological site is often found interspersed with Subirrigated ecological site and occurs on a slightly lower landscape.
R065XY032NE	Sandy 17-22" PZ The Sandy 17-22 PZ is often found adjacent to the Subirrigated ecological site but on a higher landscape position.
R065XY054NE	Sandy 22-25" PZ The Sandy 22-25 PZ is often found adjacent to the Subirrigated ecological site but on a higher landscape position.
R065XY055NE	Sands 22-25" PZ The Sands 22-25 PZ may be found adjacent to the Subirrigated ecological site but on a higher landscape position.
R065XY033NE	Sands 17-22" PZ The Sands 17-22 PZ may be found adjacent to the Subirrigated ecological site but on a higher landscape position.

Similar sites

R065XY023NE	Wet Subirrigated The Wet Subirrigated and Subirrigated ecological sites occur on similar landscape positions and have similar soil textures. The seasonal high water table is higher on Wet Subirrigated sites and is typically present at 6 to 18 inches while the water table of Subirrigated sites is typically at 18 to 36 inches.
R065XY029NE	Sandy Lowland The Sandy Lowland and Subirrigated ecological sites occur on similar landscape positions and have similar soil textures. Subirrigated sites have a seasonal high water table above 36 inches while the water table is below 36 inches on Sandy Lowland sites.

R065XY023NE

Wet Subirrigated

The Wet Subirrigated and Subirrigated ecological sites occur on similar landscape positions and have similar soil textures. The seasonal high water table is higher on Wet Subirrigated sites and is typically present at 6 to 18 inches while the water table of Subirrigated sites is typically at 18 to 36 inches.

R065XY029NE

Sandy Lowland

The Sandy Lowland and Subirrigated ecological sites occur on similar landscape positions and have similar soil textures. Subirrigated sites have a seasonal high water table above 36 inches while the water table is below 36 inches on Sandy Lowland sites.

Table 1. Dominant plant species

Tree	Not specified
Shrub	Not specified
Herbaceous	(1) Andropogon gerardii (2) Sorghastrum nutans

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Physiographic features

The Subirrigated ecological site occurs on level to nearly level areas on interdunes, floodplains, and drainageways. Soil water is moderately close to the soil surface and the site has a seasonal high water table at 18 to 36 inches during a portion of the growing season. This site receives run-off from areas higher on the landscape. Sites located on interdunes do not experience flooding while sites on floodplains experience flooding rarely to occasionally.

Table 2. Representative physiographic features

Landforms	(1) Sandhills > Interdune (2) Valley > Flood plain
Runoff class	Negligible to low
Flooding duration	Brief (2 to 7 days)
Flooding frequency	None to occasional
Ponding frequency	None
Elevation	1,000 – 4,000 ft
Slope	3%
Water table depth	18 – 36 in
Aspect	Aspect is not a significant factor

Climatic features

The mean average annual precipitation typically ranges from 14 to 25 inches but has varied from 12 to 34 inches in the driest to wettest seasons. Approximately 65 percent of the annual precipitation occurs during the growing season of mid-April to late September. The average annual snowfall varies from about 30 inches to about 55 inches. The wind velocity is high throughout the year, averaging 10 to 12 miles per hour. Maximum wind velocities generally occur in the spring.

The average length of the growing season is 138 days, but the growing season has varied from 114 to 168 days. The average date of first frost in the fall is September 25, and the last frost in the spring is about May 10. July is the hottest month and January is the coldest. It is not uncommon for the temperature to reach 100 ºF during the summer. Summer humidity is low, and evaporation is high. The winters are characterized with frequent northerly winds, producing severe cold with temperatures dropping to as low as -30 ºF.

Growth of native cool-season plants begins mid to late March and continues to late June. Native warm-season plants begin growth in early May and continue to late August. Green up of cool-season plants may occur in September and October when adequate soil moisture is present.

Table 3. Representative climatic features

Frost-free period (characteristic range)	109-126 days
Freeze-free period (characteristic range)	131-143 days
Precipitation total (characteristic range)	19-26 in
Frost-free period (actual range)	103-129 days
Freeze-free period (actual range)	129-146 days
Precipitation total (actual range)	18-27 in
Frost-free period (average)	118 days
Freeze-free period (average)	137 days
Precipitation total (average)	22 in

Characteristic range

Actual range

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Figure 2. Monthly precipitation range

Characteristic range

Actual range

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Figure 3. Monthly minimum temperature range

Characteristic range

Actual range

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Figure 4. Monthly maximum temperature range

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Figure 5. Monthly average minimum and maximum temperature

Figure 6. Annual precipitation pattern

Figure 7. Annual average temperature pattern

Climate stations used

(1) ALLIANCE MUNI AP [USW00024044], Alliance, NE
(2) ARTHUR [USC00250365], Arthur, NE
(3) ATKINSON 3SW [USC00250420], Atkinson, NE
(4) BARTLETT 1S [USC00250525], Bartlett, NE
(5) BREWSTER [USC00251130], Brewster, NE
(6) CHAMBERS [USC00251590], Chambers, NE
(7) CRESCENT LAKE NWR [USC00252000], Oshkosh, NE
(8) ELLSWORTH 15 NNE [USC00252647], Ellsworth, NE
(9) ELSMERE 9 ENE [USC00252680], Johnstown, NE
(10) ERICSON 8 WNW [USC00252770], Burwell, NE
(11) GREELEY [USC00253425], Greeley, NE
(12) HYANNIS [USC00254100], Hyannis, NE
(13) KILGORE 1NE [USC00254432], Kilgore, NE
(14) KINGSLEY DAM [USC00254455], Keystone, NE
(15) MERRIMAN [USC00255470], Merriman, NE
(16) MULLEN [USC00255700], Mullen, NE
(17) MULLEN 21 NW [USC00255702], Whitman, NE
(18) NEWPORT [USC00255925], Newport, NE
(19) NORTH PLATTE RGNL AP [USW00024023], Maxwell, NE
(20) PURDUM [USC00256970], Purdum, NE
(21) ROSE 10 WNW [USC00257318], Long Pine, NE
(22) SWAN LAKE [USC00258360], Amelia, NE
(23) VALENTINE NWR [USC00258755], Valentine, NE
(24) WHITMAN 5 ENE [USW00094079], Whitman, NE

Influencing water features

The Subirrigated ecological site has a combination of physical and hydrological features that: 1) normally has groundwater within the root zone (1.5 ft. to 3 ft.), 2) during a portion of the growing season, allowing relatively free movement of water and air (aerobic conditions) throughout the upper half of the root zone, and 3) is not normally ponded or flooded during the growing season.

Soil features

The soils associated with the Subirrigated ecological site are typically very deep soils. These soils formed primarily in eolian sand or sandy alluvium, but some soils formed in loamy eolian materials or loamy alluvium. Slopes range from 0 to 3 percent. Soil surface and subsurface textures range from fine sand to fine sandy loam. The thickness of the A horizon is typically 4 to 18 inches but may be thicker. Soil structures are primarily single grain to weak fine granular to weak fine granular parting to single grain.

Runoff as evidenced by rills, waterflow patterns, pedestalled plants, or gullies is negligible due to the low slope gradient and high intake rate of these soils. Litter should fall in place and signs of litter movement are rare.

The major soil series correlated to this ecological site are Els, Elsmere, Ord, Boel, and Bolent. Other soils correlated to this site include Gibbon, Lex, and Ovina. Additional information can be found in the various soil survey reports. Contact the local USDA Service Center for soil survey reports that include more details specific to your location or visit Web Soil Survey (https://websoilsurvey.sc.egov.usda.gov).

Table 4. Representative soil features

Parent material	(1) Eolian sands (2) Alluvium
Surface texture	(1) Fine sand (2) Loamy fine sand (3) Fine sandy loam
Family particle size	(1) Sandy
Drainage class	Somewhat poorly drained
Permeability class	Moderately slow to rapid
Soil depth	80 in
Surface fragment cover <=3"	Not specified
Surface fragment cover >3"	Not specified
Available water capacity (0-40in)	3 – 6 in
Calcium carbonate equivalent (0-40in)	10%
Electrical conductivity (0-40in)	2 mmhos/cm
Sodium adsorption ratio (0-40in)	6
Soil reaction (1:1 water) (0-40in)	5.6 – 8.4
Subsurface fragment volume <=3" (Depth not specified)	6%
Subsurface fragment volume >3" (Depth not specified)	Not specified

Ecological dynamics

Subirrigated ecological sites developed under Northern Great Plains climatic conditions, light to severe grazing by bison and other large herbivores, sporadic natural or man-caused fire, and other biotic and abiotic factors that typically influence soil and site development. This continues to be a disturbance-driven site with herbivory, fire, and variable climate being the primary disturbances. Changes in the plant communities occur due to short-term weather variations, impacts of native and exotic plant and animal species, and management actions. The plant diversity allows for high resistance to drought. The site is extremely resilient, and well adapted to Northern Great Plains climatic conditions.

The introduction of domestic livestock by European settlers along with season-long, continuous grazing and annual late summer haying had a profound impact on the vegetation of the Subirrigated ecological site. Season-long, continuous grazing causes a repeated removal of the growing point and excessive defoliation of the leaf area of the more palatable warm-season tallgrasses, reducing the ability of the plants to harvest sunlight thereby depleting root reserves and subsequently decreasing root mass. The ability of the plants to compete for nutrients is impaired, resulting in decreased vigor and eventual mortality. Species that evade negative grazing impacts through mechanisms such as a growing season adaptation (i.e., cool-season), growing points located near the soil surface, a shorter structure, or reduced palatability will increase. As this site deteriorates, big bluestem, prairie cordgrass, switchgrass, and Indiangrass decrease in frequency and production while cool-season grasses increase. As this management continues, the site becomes dominated by native cool-season grasses and the site is susceptible to invasion by non-native cool-season grasses.

The State and Transition Model (STM) is depicted below and includes a Reference State (1), a Native/Non-Native Grass State (2) and an Invaded Grass State (3). Each state represents the crossing of a major ecological threshold due to the alteration of the functional dynamic properties of the ecosystem. The primary properties observed to determine this change are soil stability, hydrologic function, and functional/structural group composition. Each state may have one or more plant communities that fluctuate in species composition and abundance within the normal parameters of the state. Within each state, communities may degrade or recover in response to natural and man caused disturbances such as variation in the degree and timing of herbivory, presence or absence of fire, and local climatic fluctuations especially in the precipitation regime. The processes that cause the movement between the states and communities are discussed in more detail in the state and community description following the model diagram.

Interpretations are primarily based on the Reference Community (1.1) which has been determined by study of rangeland relic areas, areas protected from excessive disturbance, and areas under long-term rotational grazing regimes. Trends in plant community dynamics ranging from heavily grazed to lightly grazed areas, seasonal use pastures, and historical accounts have been used as well. Plant communities, states, transitional pathways, and thresholds have been determined through similar studies and experience.

State and transition model

Custom diagram

Standard diagram

Figure 8. State and Transition Model Diagram, Subirrigated ecological site, MLRA 65.

More interactive model formats are also available. View Interactive Models

More interactive model formats are also available. View Interactive Models
Click on state and transition labels to scroll to the respective text

Ecosystem states

1. Reference State

2. Native/Non-Native Grass State

3. Invaded Grass State

T1A	-	Long-term annual haying in mid-summer. Continuous, seasonal grazing in summer.
T1B	-	Seeding of introduced grass species.
R2A	-	Long-term early haying or long-term, early grazing with adequate growing season recovery periods. This restoration will take an extended amount of time and may not be feasible.
T2A	-	Encroachment facilitated by long-term, annual, mid-summer haying. Seeding.

State 1 submodel, plant communities

1.1. Reference Community

1.2. At-Risk Community

1.1A	-	Annual haying at same time each year or moderate, seasonal grazing in the summer.
1.2A	-	Appropriately timed haying. Rotational grazing with adequate growing season recovery periods.

State 2 submodel, plant communities

2.1. Native/Invaded Grass Community

State 3 submodel, plant communities

3.1. Non-Native Dominant Community

State 1
Reference State

The Reference State (1) describes the range of vegetative communities that occur on the Subirrigated ecological site where the range of natural variability under historic conditions and disturbance regimes is mostly intact. The Reference State developed under the combined influences of climatic conditions, periodic fire activity, grazing by large herbivores, and impacts from small mammals and insects. High perennial grass cover and production allows for increased soil moisture retention, vegetative production, and overall soil quality. The Reference State includes two community phases which are the Reference Community (1.1) and the At-Risk Community (1.2). The Reference Community serves as a description of the native plant community that occurs on the site when the natural disturbance regimes are intact or closely mimicked by management practices. The At-Risk Community results from management actions that are unfavorable for a healthy Reference Community.

Dominant plant species

big bluestem (Andropogon gerardii), grass
Indiangrass (Sorghastrum nutans), grass
switchgrass (Panicum virgatum), grass
prairie cordgrass (Spartina pectinata), grass
slender wheatgrass (Elymus trachycaulus), grass

Community 1.1
Reference Community

Interpretations are primarily based on the Reference or Big Bluestem-Indiangrass (Andropogon gerardii-Sorghastrum nutans) Community. This plant community serves as a description of the native plant community that occurs on the site when the historic disturbance regimes are intact or are closely mimicked by management practices. This community phase is dynamic, with fluid relative abundance and spatial boundaries between the dominant structural and functional vegetative groups. These fluctuations are primarily driven by different responses of the plant species to fire and grazing events and to changes in precipitation timing and abundance. This site developed with grazing by large herbivores and is well suited for grazing by domestic livestock. The Reference Community is dominated by warm-season tallgrasses. Big bluestem, switchgrass, prairie cordgrass, and Indiangrass are the dominant grass species. Little bluestem is also an important component of the site. Native cool-season grasses and grass-likes occur in the understory. Forbs typically include American licorice, scouringrush horsetail, blackeyed Susan, Maximilian sunflower, and giant goldenrod. The potential vegetative composition is 75 to 85 percent grasses, 5 to 15 percent grass-likes, 5 to 10 percent forbs, and 0 to 5 percent shrubs by weight. Natural fire played a significant role in the succession of this site. Wildfires have been actively controlled in recent times, reducing forb diversity. This plant community can be found on areas that are managed with prescribed grazing, prescribed burning, or rotational haying. Haying or grazing during the same portion of the growing season can reduce plant diversity and reduce vigor of desirable plants. This resilient community is well adapted to the Northern Great Plains climatic conditions. Plant diversity promotes drought tolerance, site and soil stability, a functional hydrologic cycle, and a high degree of biotic integrity. These factors create a suitable environment for a healthy and sustainable plant community.

Dominant plant species

big bluestem (Andropogon gerardii), grass
Indiangrass (Sorghastrum nutans), grass
little bluestem (Schizachyrium scoparium), grass
prairie cordgrass (Spartina pectinata), grass
switchgrass (Panicum virgatum), grass

Figure 9. Annual production by plant type (representative values) or group (midpoint values)

Table 5. Annual production by plant type

Plant type	Low (lb/acre)	Representative value (lb/acre)	High (lb/acre)
Grass/Grasslike	3980	4230	4440
Forb	220	350	500
Shrub/Vine	0	20	60
Total	4200	4600	5000

Figure 10. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). NE6543, NE/SD Sandhills, Native Grass, Wet. Warm-season dominant, cool-season subdominant, mid & tall grasses.

Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun	Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec
J	F	M	A	M	J	J	A	S	O	N	D
0	0	0	5	20	35	25	10	5	0	0	0

Community 1.2
At-Risk Community

The At-Risk or Big Bluestem-Switchgrass (Andropogon gerardii-Panicum virgatum) Community (1.2) historically developed with annual haying or moderate seasonal grazing in the summer followed by heavy grazing in the fall. This plant community closely resembles the Reference Community (1.1) but lacks the plant diversity of that community. Warm-season tallgrasses are suppressed while cool-season grasses and grass-likes have increased slightly. The proportion of forbs and shrubs remains the same as in the Reference Community, but shifts in species composition have occurred. The dominant grasses include big bluestem, switchgrass, and prairie cordgrass. Grasses of secondary importance include little bluestem. Sedges are also important on the site. Non-native, cool-season grasses may have begun to encroach into the plant community. The potential vegetative composition is 70 to 80 percent grasses, 10 to 15 percent grasslikes, 5 to 10 percent forbs, and 0 to 5 percent shrubs. The At-Risk Community is not resistant to change but is resilient. Haying or grazing prior to the onset of active growth of the warm-season grasses will improve their vigor. Early haying will reduce cool-season grass competition and provide good quality hay. Grazing in the fall after a killing frost will also reduce cool-season grass competition. This community is stable in terms of hydrologic function and soil and site stability, but biotic integrity is reduced as compared to the Reference Community.

Dominant plant species

big bluestem (Andropogon gerardii), grass
switchgrass (Panicum virgatum), grass
prairie cordgrass (Spartina pectinata), grass

Figure 11. Annual production by plant type (representative values) or group (midpoint values)

Table 6. Annual production by plant type

Plant type	Low (lb/acre)	Representative value (lb/acre)	High (lb/acre)
Grass/Grasslike	3500	3880	4260
Forb	0	100	200
Shrub/Vine	0	20	40
Total	3500	4000	4500

Figure 12. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). NE6544, NE/SD Sandhills, Hayed and Grazed Subirrigated Meadows. Warm-season dominant, cool-season subdominant, mid and tall grasses.

Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun	Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec
J	F	M	A	M	J	J	A	S	O	N	D
0	0	0	10	20	25	20	15	10	0	0	0

Pathway 1.1A
Community 1.1 to 1.2

Annual haying during the same time period each year or moderate summer grazing will move the Reference Community (1.1) to the At-Risk Community (1.2). This process is accelerated when heavy fall grazing follows summer haying or grazing.

Pathway 1.2A
Community 1.2 to 1.1

Haying or grazing prior to the onset of the rapid growth period of warm-season grasses will improve warm-season grass vigor and move the At-Risk Community (1.2) to the Reference Community (1.1). Early haying or grazing reduces cool-season grass competition and provides high quality hay. Grazing after a killing frost in the fall will also reduce the amount of cool-season grasses. Rotational grazing with adequate, growing season recovery time will also facilitate the return to the Reference Community.

State 2
Native/Non-Native Grass State

The Native/Non-Native Grass State (2) transitioned from the Reference State (1) and a significant portion of the native grasses has been replaced by non-native cool-season grasses. The management that resulted in the Native/Invaded Grass State is typically long-term annual haying in mid-summer. Under this management strategy, introduced grasses encroach from adjacent seeded areas. In the past, many Sandhills meadows were interseeded with non-native introduced grasses in an attempt to improve forage production. This interseeding often produced to a mixture of native and non-native grasses. The loss of warm-season tall- and midgrasses negatively impacts energy flow and nutrient cycling and alters hydrologic function. The Native/Invaded Grass State is very resistant to change; Return to the Reference State will take a significant amount of time. If inadequate amounts of warm-season tall- and midgrasses are present, restoration to the Reference State will not be feasible. The Native/Non-Native Grass State includes one community, the Native/Invaded Grass Community (2.1).

Dominant plant species

prairie cordgrass (Spartina pectinata), grass
big bluestem (Andropogon gerardii), grass
switchgrass (Panicum virgatum), grass
slender wheatgrass (Elymus trachycaulus), grass
Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis), grass

Community 2.1
Native/Invaded Grass Community

Historically, the Native/Invaded or Prairie Cordgrass/Kentucky Bluegrass (Spartina pectinata/Poa pratensis) Community developed with long-term annual haying in mid-summer. This community also occurs in over-utilized, winter feeding areas or with the interseeding of introduced forage grasses. As compared to the Reference Community (1.1), cool-season grasses have increased significantly, and the dominant cool-season grasses are often non-native species. Slender wheatgrass is typically the dominant native cool-season grass. Non-native grasses may also be present. Switchgrass and prairie cordgrass are reduced while big bluestem and Indiangrass are significantly reduced as compared to the Reference Community. Dominant native grasses include big bluestem, switchgrass, prairie cordgrass, and slender wheatgrass. Non-native grasses may include redtop, timothy, Kentucky bluegrass, quackgrass, reed canarygrass, creeping meadow foxtail, or smooth brome. White clover and red clover are common forbs. American licorice may be extensive in areas where cattle are hayed in the winter. The potential vegetative composition is 65 to 75 percent grasses, 5 to 20 percent grass-likes, 5 to 10 percent forbs, and 0 to 1 percent shrubs. Plant diversity is reduced as compared to the Reference Community and lower overall production of the site can be expected. This plant community is moderately resistant to change. With continuation of mid-summer haying, the warm-season grasses will continue to decline eventually causing the transition to the Invaded Grass State (3).

Dominant plant species

prairie cordgrass (Spartina pectinata), grass
slender wheatgrass (Elymus trachycaulus), grass
Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis), grass

Figure 13. Annual production by plant type (representative values) or group (midpoint values)

Table 7. Annual production by plant type

Plant type	Low (lb/acre)	Representative value (lb/acre)	High (lb/acre)
Grass/Grasslike	2545	2880	3115
Forb	155	320	550
Total	2700	3200	3665

Figure 14. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). NE6545, NE/SD Sandhills, Hayed and Grazed Cool-Season Meadows. Cool-season dominant, warm-season subdominant, mid & tall grasses.

Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun	Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec
J	F	M	A	M	J	J	A	S	O	N	D
0	0	5	15	30	25	10	5	10	0	0	0

State 3
Invaded Grass State

The Invaded Grass State (3) transitioned from the Native/Invaded Grass State (2) and most of the native grasses, both warm- and cool-season, have been replaced by non-native cool-season grasses through encroachment from other areas. The management that causes this transition is typically long-term, repetitive haying during the same time during the growing season or a combination of heavy grazing and repetitive haying. The Invaded Grass State will also result when non-native, forage grasses such as reed canarygrass and creeping meadow foxtail are interseeded to improve forage production. In the past, many Sandhills meadows were interseeded with non-native grasses for this purpose. Due to the aggressive nature of these non-native grasses, restoration to either the Reference State or the Native/Invaded Grass State is unlikely. The Invaded Grass State includes one plant community, the Non-Native Dominant Community (3.1).

Community 3.1
Non-Native Dominant Community

The Non-Native Dominant or Reed Canarygrass-Creeping Meadow Foxtail (Phalaris arundinacea-Alopecurus arundinaceus) Community (3.1) occurs with encroachment or when introduced grasses are seeded. Non-native cultivars of reed canarygrass and creeping meadow foxtail are typical dominants but timothy, redtop, quackgrass, or other non-native grasses may dominate the site. The presence of this plant community has serious repercussions on plant diversity and is detrimental to numerous wildlife species. Once established, this plant community becomes difficult to alter due to the aggressive nature of the seeded species. While the production potential for this community is quite high, forage quality is significantly less than that of native grass especially when hayed.

Dominant plant species

reed canarygrass (Phalaris arundinacea), grass
creeping meadow foxtail (Alopecurus arundinaceus), grass

Figure 15. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). NE6545, NE/SD Sandhills, Hayed and Grazed Cool-Season Meadows. Cool-season dominant, warm-season subdominant, mid & tall grasses.

Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun	Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec
J	F	M	A	M	J	J	A	S	O	N	D
0	0	5	15	30	25	10	5	10	0	0	0

Transition T1A
State 1 to 2

The Reference State (1) most often transitions to the Native/Non-Native state with long-term annual haying during mid-summer. This transition can also occur with long-term, seasonal grazing during the summer months. This process is accelerated when mid-summer haying or grazing is accompanied by heavy grazing in the fall.

Transition T1B
State 1 to 3

Seeding non-native forage species will convert the Reference State (1) to the Invaded Grass State (3). Encroachment of non-native forage species from other areas will also cause this transition.

Restoration pathway R2A
State 2 to 1

Long-term haying or grazing prior to the onset of the rapid growth period of warm-season tallgrasses will improve the health and vigor of the warm-season grasses restoring the Native/Invaded Grass State (2) to the Reference State (1). Early haying or grazing reduces cool-season grass competition and provides high quality hay. Grazing after a killing frost in the fall will also help reduce cool-season grass abundance. Care must be used on areas where Subirrigated, Wet Subirrigated, and Wet Land sites are interspersed as concentrated grazing in the spring when water tables are highest can damage the wetter sites. This restoration will take a considerable amount of time and is only feasible if adequate warm-season tallgrasses remain in the plant community.

Transition T2A
State 2 to 3

When warm-season grasses are low in vigor due to long-term repeated haying at the same time each year, non-native grasses will encroach if a viable seed source is available transitioning the Native/Invaded Grass State (2) to the Non-Native State (3). This transition will also occur when the Native/Invaded Grass State is further stress by heavy grazing. The Non-Native State also occurs when reed canarygrass and/or creeping meadow foxtail have been seeded after deterioration of native grass production.

Additional community tables

Table 8. Community 1.1 plant community composition

Group	Common name	Symbol	Scientific name	Annual production (lb/acre)	Foliar cover (%)
Grass/Grasslike
1	Warm-Season Tallgrass			2530–3220
	big bluestem	ANGE	Andropogon gerardii	1380–2300	–
	Indiangrass	SONU2	Sorghastrum nutans	690–1150	–
	prairie cordgrass	SPPE	Spartina pectinata	230–690	–
	switchgrass	PAVI2	Panicum virgatum	230–690	–
	marsh muhly	MURA	Muhlenbergia racemosa	0–230	–
	Grass, perennial	2GP	Grass, perennial	0–138	–
2	Warm-Season Midgrass			460–1150
	little bluestem	SCSC	Schizachyrium scoparium	460–1150	–
	Grass, perennial	2GP	Grass, perennial	0–138	–
3	Native Cool-Season Grass			230–690
	western wheatgrass	PASM	Pascopyrum smithii	0–460	–
	needle and thread	HECOC8	Hesperostipa comata ssp. comata	92–460	–
	porcupinegrass	HESP11	Hesperostipa spartea	0–230	–
	slender wheatgrass	ELTRT	Elymus trachycaulus ssp. trachycaulus	0–230	–
	plains bluegrass	POAR3	Poa arida	0–138	–
	foxtail barley	HOJU	Hordeum jubatum	0–94	–
	Grass, perennial	2GP	Grass, perennial	0–92	–
4	Grass-like			230–690
	sedge	CAREX	Carex	230–460	–
	spikerush	ELEOC	Eleocharis	0–230	–
	rush	JUNCU	Juncus	0–230	–
	bulrush	SCIRP	Scirpus	0–230	–
Forb
5	Forb			230–460
	white heath aster	SYER	Symphyotrichum ericoides	0–138	–
	American licorice	GLLE3	Glycyrrhiza lepidota	0–138	–
	Forb, perennial	2FP	Forb, perennial	0–138	–
	scouringrush horsetail	EQHY	Equisetum hyemale	0–92	–
	Nebraska aster	SYPRN	Symphyotrichum praealtum var. nebraskense	0–92	–
	Maximilian sunflower	HEMA2	Helianthus maximiliani	0–92	–
	blazing star	LIATR	Liatris	0–92	–
	blackeyed Susan	RUHI2	Rudbeckia hirta	0–92	–
	giant goldenrod	SOGI	Solidago gigantea	0–92	–
Shrub/Vine
7	Shrub			0–230
	dwarf false indigo	AMNA	Amorpha nana	0–230	–
	Shrub (>.5m)	2SHRUB	Shrub (>.5m)	0–230	–

Table 9. Community 1.2 plant community composition

Group	Common name	Symbol	Scientific name	Annual production (lb/acre)	Foliar cover (%)
Grass/Grasslike
1	Warm-Season Tallgrass			1200–2000
	big bluestem	ANGE	Andropogon gerardii	400–1000	–
	switchgrass	PAVI2	Panicum virgatum	400–1000	–
	prairie cordgrass	SPPE	Spartina pectinata	200–600	–
	Indiangrass	SONU2	Sorghastrum nutans	80–400	–
	marsh muhly	MURA	Muhlenbergia racemosa	0–120	–
	Grass, perennial	2GP	Grass, perennial	0–80	–
2	Warm-Season Midgrass			200–400
	little bluestem	SCSC	Schizachyrium scoparium	200–400	–
	Grass, perennial	2GP	Grass, perennial	0–40	–
3	Native Cool-Season Grass			200–800
	slender wheatgrass	ELTRT	Elymus trachycaulus ssp. trachycaulus	0–200	–
	needle and thread	HECOC8	Hesperostipa comata ssp. comata	92–200	–
	porcupinegrass	HESP11	Hesperostipa spartea	0–200	–
	foxtail barley	HOJU	Hordeum jubatum	0–200	–
	western wheatgrass	PASM	Pascopyrum smithii	0–200	–
	plains bluegrass	POAR3	Poa arida	0–200	–
	Grass, perennial	2GP	Grass, perennial	0–80	–
4	Grass-like			400–600
	sedge	CAREX	Carex	200–400	–
	spikerush	ELEOC	Eleocharis	0–200	–
	rush	JUNCU	Juncus	0–200	–
	bulrush	SCIRP	Scirpus	0–200	–
7	Non-Native Cool-Season Grass			0–400
	Kentucky bluegrass	POPR	Poa pratensis	0–200	–
	smooth brome	BRIN2	Bromus inermis	0–200	–
	Grass, perennial	2GP	Grass, perennial	0–200	–
Forb
5	Forb			200–400
	giant goldenrod	SOGI	Solidago gigantea	0–200	–
	white heath aster	SYER	Symphyotrichum ericoides	0–120	–
	blackeyed Susan	RUHI2	Rudbeckia hirta	0–120	–
	American licorice	GLLE3	Glycyrrhiza lepidota	0–120	–
	blazing star	LIATR	Liatris	0–80	–
	scouringrush horsetail	EQHY	Equisetum hyemale	0–80	–
	Forb, perennial	2FP	Forb, perennial	0–80	–
	Nebraska aster	SYPRN	Symphyotrichum praealtum var. nebraskense	0–80	–
Shrub/Vine
6	Shrub			0–200
	dwarf false indigo	AMNA	Amorpha nana	0–200	–
	Shrub (>.5m)	2SHRUB	Shrub (>.5m)	0–80	–

Table 10. Community 2.1 plant community composition

Group	Common name	Symbol	Scientific name	Annual production (lb/acre)	Foliar cover (%)
Grass/Grasslike
1	Warm-Season Tallgrass			800–1280
	big bluestem	ANGE	Andropogon gerardii	320–480	–
	switchgrass	PAVI2	Panicum virgatum	320–480	–
	prairie cordgrass	SPPE	Spartina pectinata	160–480	–
	Indiangrass	SONU2	Sorghastrum nutans	0–160	–
	marsh muhly	MURA	Muhlenbergia racemosa	0–64	–
	Grass, perennial	2GP	Grass, perennial	0–64	–
2	Warm-Season Midgrass			160–320
	little bluestem	SCSC	Schizachyrium scoparium	160–320	–
	Grass, perennial	2GP	Grass, perennial	0–64	–
3	Native Cool-Season Grass			480–1120
	western wheatgrass	PASM	Pascopyrum smithii	160–320	–
	plains bluegrass	POAR3	Poa arida	0–320	–
	slender wheatgrass	ELTRT	Elymus trachycaulus ssp. trachycaulus	160–320	–
	needle and thread	HECOC8	Hesperostipa comata ssp. comata	160–320	–
	porcupinegrass	HESP11	Hesperostipa spartea	0–160	–
	foxtail barley	HOJU	Hordeum jubatum	0–160	–
	Grass, perennial	2GP	Grass, perennial	0–64	–
4	Grass-Like			160–640
	spikerush	ELEOC	Eleocharis	0–640	–
	sedge	CAREX	Carex	160–480	–
	rush	JUNCU	Juncus	0–160	–
	bulrush	SCIRP	Scirpus	0–160	–
7	Non-Native Cool-Season Grass			320–1120
	Kentucky bluegrass	POPR	Poa pratensis	320–800	–
	smooth brome	BRIN2	Bromus inermis	0–640	–
	timothy	PHPR3	Phleum pratense	0–480	–
	redtop	AGGI2	Agrostis gigantea	0–320	–
	quackgrass	ELRE4	Elymus repens	0–160	–
	Grass, perennial	2GP	Grass, perennial	0–160	–
Forb
5	Forb			124–320
	white heath aster	SYER	Symphyotrichum ericoides	0–160	–
	Nebraska aster	SYPRN	Symphyotrichum praealtum var. nebraskense	0–96	–
	Forb, perennial	2FP	Forb, perennial	0–96	–
	American licorice	GLLE3	Glycyrrhiza lepidota	0–96	–
	blazing star	LIATR	Liatris	0–96	–
	blackeyed Susan	RUHI2	Rudbeckia hirta	0–96	–
	giant goldenrod	SOGI	Solidago gigantea	0–64	–
	Maximilian sunflower	HEMA2	Helianthus maximiliani	0–64	–
	scouringrush horsetail	EQHY	Equisetum hyemale	0–64	–
8	Introduced Forb			36–320
	red clover	TRPR2	Trifolium pratense	0–320	–
	white clover	TRRE3	Trifolium repens	0–256	–
	Forb, introduced	2FI	Forb, introduced	0–160	–
Shrub/Vine
6	Shrub			0–32
	dwarf false indigo	AMNA	Amorpha nana	0–32	–

Interpretations

Animal community

LIVESTOCK - GRAZING INTERPRETATIONS:
Grazing by domestic livestock is the major income-producing industry in the area. Rangeland in this area may provide year-long forage for cattle, sheep, or horses. During the dormant period, the protein levels of the forage may be lower than the minimum needed to meet livestock (primarily cattle and sheep) requirements. The following table lists suggested stocking rates for cattle under continuous season-long grazing under normal growing conditions. These are conservative estimates that should be used only as guidelines in the initial stages of the conservation planning process. Often, the current plant composition does not entirely match any particular plant community (as described in this ecological site description). Because of this, a field visit is recommended, in all cases, to document plant composition and production. More precise carrying capacity estimates should eventually be calculated using this information along with animal preference data, particularly when grazers other than cattle are involved. With consultation of the land manager, more intensive grazing management may result in improved harvest efficiencies and increased carrying capacity.
Production and Carrying Capacity*
►Reference Community (1.1)
Average Production (lb./acre, air-dry): 4,600
Stocking Rate (AUM/acre): 1.26
►At-Risk Community (1.2)
Average Production (lb./acre, air-dry): 4,000
Stocking Rate (AUM/acre): 1.1
►Native/Invaded Grass Community (2.1)
Average Production (lb./acre, air-dry): 3,200
Stocking Rate (AUM/acre): 0.88
*Based upon the following conditions: continuous season-long grazing by cattle under average growing conditions, 25 percent harvest efficiency. Air dry forage requirements based on 3 percent of animal body weight, or 912 lbs/AU/month.

WILDLIFE INTERPRETATIONS:
The Sandhills Prairie ecosystem consists of diverse grassland habitats interspersed with varying densities of Sandhills lakes and limited woody riparian corridors. The majority of this ecosystem is intact. These habitats historically provided critical life cycle components for the grassland birds, prairie dogs, and herds of roaming bison, elk, and pronghorn. Bobcats, wolves, and mountain lions occupied the apex predator niche. Diverse populations of small mammals and insects still provide a bountiful prey base for raptors and omnivores such as coyotes, foxes, raccoons, and opossums. In addition, a wide variety of reptiles and amphibians thrive in this landscape.

The Sandhills Prairie was a disturbance-driven ecosystem with fire, herbivory, and climate functioning as the primary disturbances. Following European settlement, elimination of fire and overgrazing altered the appearance and functionality of the ecosystem. Bison and prairie dogs were historically keystone species, but free-roaming bison herds have been extirpated in this region. The loss of bison and fire as ecological drivers influenced the character of the remaining native grasslands and the habitats that they provide. Fragmentation in MLRA 65 is limited and area sensitive grassland birds such as greater prairie chicken and sharp-tailed grouse continue to thrive here. The mosaic of sites continues to provide habitat for species requiring unfragmented grasslands, providing upland nesting habitat for grassland birds and game birds, nesting and escape cover for waterfowl, forbs and insects for brood-rearing habitat, and a forage source for small and large herbivores.

In the absence of fire and grazing, heavy litter buildup can occur on this site hindering the movement of young birds, especially quail and prairie chickens. Increased litter buildup results in decreased forb abundance and diversity and an accompanying decrease in insects, a critical food source for young birds. Introduced species such as cheatgrass, Kentucky bluegrass, and introduced forbs may be present but degradation of the biotic integrity from non-native species in this precipitation zone on ecological site is limited.

Disruption of the natural fire regime and accompanying woody encroachment is the greatest threat to ecosystem dynamics in this MLRA. Lack of fire facilitates tree and shrub encroachment degrades grassland habitats and creates habitats that favor generalist species such as American robin and mourning dove. Woody species provide perches for raptors, increasing the predation mortality on native bird populations. Woody encroachment is most severe in the eastern half of the MLRA but is a threat across the MLRA.

Hydrological functions

Moisture conditions are ideal for forage production the Subirrigated ecological site. Soils on this site are mostly in Hydrologic Soil Group A, but may include soils in Group B, and local areas in Group C. Although most of these soils are very permeable, water tables provide subirrigation of grasses and other vegetation. Surrounding upland areas tend to also have permeable soils and surface inflow peaks on these sites are often muted. These sites are rarely to occasionally flood.

For the interpretive plant community, rills and gullies should not be present. Water flow patterns should not be present. Pedestals should not be present. Litter falls in place, and signs of movement are rare. Chemical and physical crusts are rare to non-existent. Cryptogamic crusts may be present but are not significant for hydrologic considerations. Overall, this site has the appearance of being very stable and extremely productive.

Recreational uses

This site provides hunting opportunities for upland game species. The wide variety of plants which bloom from spring until fall have an esthetic value that appeals to visitors.

Wood products

No appreciable wood products are present on the site.

Other products

Seed harvest of native plant species can provide additional income on this site.

Other information

Revision Notes: “This PROVISIONAL ecological site concept has been through the quality control and quality assurance processes to ensure that the site meets the NESH standards for a provisional ecological site that provides basic compiled information in one location. This site should not be considered an Approved ESD until further data entry and editing is completed.

Site Development and Testing Plan:
Future work is needed to validate the information in this Provisional Ecological Site Description. Additional data collection and evaluation may also be needed to develop this ESD to the Approved, then Correlated level. This could include field activities to collect low, medium and high intensity sampling, soil correlations, and analysis of that data. Field reviews of the project plan should be done by soil scientists and vegetation specialists. A final field review, peer review, quality control, and quality assurance reviews of the ESD will be needed to produce the final document. Annual reviews of the Project Plan are to be conducted by the Ecological Site Technical Team. The project plan is ES-R065XY013NE - MLRA 65.

Supporting information

Inventory data references

Information presented here has been derived from NRCS clipping data and other inventory data. Field observations from range trained personnel were also used. Those involved in developing this site include Dave Cook, Rangeland Management Specialist, NRCS; Dwight Hale, Engineer, NRCS; Sheila Luoma, Resource Conservationist, NRCS; Marla Shelbourn, Rangeland Management Specialist, NRCS; Dave Steffen, Rangeland Management Specialist, NRCS.

There are 27 SCS-RANGE-417 records available that were collected in Nebraska and South Dakota counties: Blaine, Cherry, Custer, Garden, Garfield, Grant, Morrill, Lincoln, Loup, Thomas, Todd, and Wheeler. These records are from 1968 to 1999.

Other references

Bleed, A. S., Flowerday, C. A., 1998. An Atlas of the Sand Hills. Conservation and Survey Division, Institute of Agriculture and Natural Resources, University of Nebraska-Lincoln.

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service. 2003. National Range and Pasture Handbook. (https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/national-range-and-pasture-handbook)

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service. National Water and Climate Center. (http://www.wcc.nrcs.usda.gov/climate).

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service. 2021b. National Soil Information System. (https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/resources/education-and-teaching
-materials/national-soil-information-system-nasis).

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service. 2021c. National soil survey handbook, title 430-VI. (http://soils.usda.gov/technical/handbook/). Soil Survey Staff. 2021.

Web soil survey. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service. (https://websoilsurvey.sc.egov.usda.gov/) USDA, NRCS. 2023.

The PLANTS Database (http://plants.usda.gov, 12/27/2023). National Plant Data Team, Greensboro, NC USA.

Contributors

Dana Larsen
Kim Stine
Doug Whisenhunt
Nadine Bishop

Approval

Suzanne Mayne-Kinney, 2/04/2025

Rangeland health reference sheet

Interpreting Indicators of Rangeland Health is a qualitative assessment protocol used to determine ecosystem condition based on benchmark characteristics described in the Reference Sheet. A suite of 17 (or more) indicators are typically considered in an assessment. The ecological site(s) representative of an assessment location must be known prior to applying the protocol and must be verified based on soils and climate. Current plant community cannot be used to identify the ecological site.

Author(s)/participant(s)	Original Author: Stan Boltz. Version V participants: Dave Cook, Emily Helms, Jeff Nichols, Myra Richardson, Nadine Bishop
Contact for lead author	Jeff Nichols: jeffrey.nichols@usda.gov
Date	11/30/2024
Approved by	Suzanne Mayne-Kinney
Approval date
Composition (Indicators 10 and 12) based on	Annual Production