State 1
Saline Mangrove Forests

Figure 7. Mangrove Forest dominated by red mangrove with expansive prop roots

These are dense forests occurring along relatively flat, low-wave energy, marine and estuarine shorelines.

Community 1.1
Mature Mangrove Swamp

Figure 8. Mangrove forest dominated by red and black mangrove in the overstory and an open understory of saline tolerant herbaceous species

Figure 9. Expansive prop roots of red mangroves along a tidal creek. The black mud present on the roots shows the extent of high tide in this community.

These are dominantly woody intertidal wetlands dominated by trees. This community correlated with the Florida Natural Area Inventory Community "Mangrove Swamps" (FNAI, 2010).

Forest overstory. These four mangrove species can occur either in mixed stands or often in differentiated, monospecific zones that reflect varying degrees of tidal influence, levels of salinity, and types of substrate. Red mangrove often dominates the lowest (or deep-water) zone, followed by black mangrove in the intermediate zone, and white mangrove and buttonwood in the highest, least tidally influenced zone. Buttonwood often occupies an ecotone, or transition zone, to the adjacent upland community. The density and height of mangroves and the diversity of associated herbaceous species can vary considerably within a mangrove swamp. Mangroves typically occur in dense stands but may be sparse, particularly in upper tidal reaches where salt marsh species predominate or the area transitions to upland freshwater communities. Mangroves may range from trees more than 80 feet (25 m) tall to dwarf shrubs growing on solid limestone rock, but most commonly exist at intermediate heights of 20 to 30 feet tall (6 to 9 m).

Forest understory. The understory will consist of very sparsely vegetated herbaceous vines, ferns, shrubs, and other perennial species. Extensive root systems of existing mangrove species will be present taking up much space, making traveling through these swamps by land very difficult. Most of the groundcover will be decomposed plant material, most often leaves from surrounding mangroves.

Community 1.2
Shrubby Immature Mangrove Swamp

Figure 10. Shrubby immature patch of red mangroves rapidly recolonizing after a hurricane event. These species do not have a well established root system similar to a mature mangrove tree, making them more susceptible to wind damage.

This community describes a mangrove forest that is recovering from disturbance. These will be dense, low-growing woody vegetation that are less than 20 feet (6 meters) tall. These shrubs will consist of young mangrove trees that are not yet fully matured into taller trees with established root systems. The seedbank present will be dependent on surrounding species as well as deposition from aerial dispersion from birds and from tidal flood pulses. There will be no plants in the overstory, with a midcanopy of young trees, and an open understory, often densely packed with mangrove prop roots and pneumatophores. These root systems are not well established, and are more susceptible to disturbance events which may destroy these communities.

Forest understory. Woody species will be low-growing and densely packed, shading out any understory herbaceous species. These shrubby immature trees will be less than 20 feet (6 meters) in height. Common species which will encroach and become established include mangroves (Rhizophora mangle, Avicennia germinans, Laguncularia racemosa, Conocarpus erectus), depending on salinity levels and the surrounding seedbank present.

Pathway 1.2A
Community 1.2 to 1.1

Shrubby Immature Mangrove Swamp

Mature Mangrove Swamp

This transition is dependent on time without a disturbance which will remove these shrubby trees before they become mature in the overstory. If a disturbance were to occur such as a hurricane, tropical storm, or freeze event; these areas will often transition to an area of open unconsolidated substrates. Mangroves in the Caribbean are reported to reach maturity at around 20 to 25 years, and will require absence of high-energy disturbance events to become fully established as a mature mangrove forest.

State 2
Saline Herbaceous Wetlands

These are largely herbaceous communities that occurs in the portion of the coastal zone affected by tides and seawater and protected from large waves, either by the broad, gently sloping topography of the shore, by a barrier island, or by location along a bay or estuary.

Community 2.1
Salt Marshes

Figure 11. Salt marsh dominated by Juncus roemerianus

These are dominantly herbaceous intertidal wetlands dominated by graminoids and forbs. This community correlated with the Florida Natural Area Inventory Community "Salt Marsh" (FNAI, 2010).

Resilience management. Salt marshes have gradual slopes of 0 to 1% that determine the extent of the intertidal zone, with gentle slopes reducing wave energy and providing greater areas for plants to colonize. Slopes too flat can cause poor surface drainage resulting in pooling and high salinities, preventing the establishment of seedlings and inhibiting plant growth, whereas slopes too steep can promote erosion and the transport of fine-grained sediments from uplands to marsh areas. Situated between the land and the sea, salt marshes experience the effects of both salt and fresh water. As tide water floods over a marsh, suspended sediment settles out and accumulates around the stems of plants. Rivers and other upland sources also contribute sediments to the marsh by continually transporting and redepositing sediment. Tidal flushing is important in maintaining the exchange of saline waters in salt marshes, with oligotrophic conditions leading to invasion of cattails, while hypersaline conditions can stress plants and inhibit growth or cause plant death. Flooding frequency and soil salinity are the two major environmental factors that influence salt marsh vegetation. Needle rush and saltmarsh cordgrass both tolerate a wide range of salinities, but cordgrass is found where the marsh is flooded almost daily, whereas needle rush is found where the marsh is flooded less frequently. Saltmarsh cordgrass dominates the low marsh (portion below mean high water level), whereas needle rush occupies the high marsh (portion above mean high water level). Both species tend to form taller stands along tidal creeks where salinity is lower and shorter stands where salinity is higher.

Forest understory. The dominant plants of salt marshes include saltmarsh cordgrass (Spartina alterniflora) along the seaward edge and borders of tidal creeks, in areas most frequently inundated by the tides. Needle rush (Juncus roemerianus) dominates higher, less frequently flooded areas. Other characteristic species include Carolina sea lavender (Limonium carolinianum), perennial saltmarsh aster (Symphyotrichum tenuifolium), wand loosestrife (Lythrum lineare), marsh fimbry (Fimbristylis spadicea), and shoreline seapurslane (Sesuvium portulacastrum). The landward edge of the marsh is influenced by freshwater influx from the uplands and may be colonized by a mixture of high marsh and inland species, including needle rush, sawgrass (Cladium jamaicense), saltmeadow cordgrass (Spartina patens), Gulf cordgrass (Spartina spartinae), and sand cordgrass (Spartina bakeri), among others. A border of salt-tolerant shrubs, such as groundsel tree (Baccharis halimifolia), saltwater falsewillow (Baccharis angustifolia), marshelder (Iva frutescens), and christmasberry (Lycium carolinianum), often marks the transition to upland vegetation or low berms along the seaward marsh edge. In areas of bare, exposed, or water-filled depressions in a salt marsh in which salinity levels are too extreme to support most vascular vegetation growth, haplophytes including glasswort (Batis maritima) and saltworts (Sarcocornia perennis) will thrive.

Community 2.2
Shrubby Salt Marshes

This community describes a herbaceous salt marsh that is undergoing environmental change due to disturbance. These will be dense, low-growing woody vegetation that are less than 20 feet (6 meters) tall. These shrubs will consist of both true shrubs that never attain a greater height, and young trees of other species that may never obtain their maximum height due to the harsh environmental conditions. Some shrubby saline herbaceous marshes are a result of encroaching mangrove forests due to sea level rises. The seedbank present will be dependent on existing shrub species as well as deposition from aerial dispersion from birds and from tidal flood pulses. Other shrubby marshes may be stable communities and never transition to a mangrove forest community, but rather stay shrubby until restored. There will be no plants in the overstory, with a midcanopy of shrubs and young trees, and a dense to sparse understory of grasses and herbaceous species typical of the naturized community it transitioned from.

Forest understory. Woody shrubs will be low-growing and densely packed, which may or may not shade out the reference community understory species. These trees and shrubs will be less than 20 feet (6 meters) in height. Common species which will encroach and become established include mangroves (Rhizophora mangle, Avicennia germinans, Laguncularia racemosa, Conocarpus erectus), cabbage palm (Sabal palmetto), groundsel tree (Baccharis halimifolia), saltwater falsewillow (B. angstifolia), marshelder (Iva frutescens), christmasberry (Lycium carolinianum), and wax myrtle (Morella cerifera). Sparse reference community understory grasses and rushes such as cordgrass (Spartina alterniflora, S. patens, S. spartinae, S. bakeri) and needle rush (Juncus roemerianus) may be present.

Pathway 2.1A
Community 2.1 to 2.2

This transition is driven by a shift in ecological stressors. This may include a decrease in the hydroperiod, allowing for the establishment and encroachment of shrubby woody species to become established in a herbaceous wetland. In tidal landscapes, this transition is often seen via anthropogenic drawdown of the water table, often seen as the creation of mosquito ditches in marshes. These were often done in the early 1900s as an attempt to drain coastal marshes and control the breeding salt marshes, and can often be seen in aerial images as straight cuts running through a marsh system. In larger marsh systems where fire plays a role in maintaining community structure and composition, the absence of fire may allow for the growth of shrubby species. In areas where salt marshes are adjacent to mangrove forests, mangrove species may encroach into the marsh, shifting species composition following a storm event or with the absence of freeze events over time.

Pathway 2.2A
Community 2.2 to 2.1

This restoration is driven by restoring the natural ecological stressors to a marsh system and removing the undesirable woody species. Restoration of the natural hydroperiod often includes filling in man-made mosquito ditches or other channelized systems meant to drain water from the system. Removal of woody species actions will require relentless efforts using chemical, mechanical, or biological means.

State 3
Tidal Flats

This state serves as the foundation for the development of other subaqueous and intertidal natural communities when conditions become appropriate. This is a highly fluctuating community and is altered by storm events and can originate from organic sources, such as decaying plant tissues (e.g., mud) or from calcium carbonate depositions of plants or animals (e.g., coralgal, marl and shell substrates).

Community 3.1
Ghost Forest (If wooded)

Figure 12. Ghost forest found along edge of mangrove swamp with estuarine environment

Ghost forests are the remains of a wooded vegetated community after changes in the long term hydroperiod (primarily sea level rise or artificial impoundment) permanently saturate the root system and becomes too saline for the species tolerance. They appear as standing dead wood representing where once the living vegetation stood. Evidence of previous shorelines may be found in subaqueous soil cores as root matter or a buried organic horizon.

Community 3.2
Unconsolidated Substrates

These are expansive, relatively open areas of intertidal and supratidal zones which lack dense populations of sessile plant and animal species, Unconsolidated Substrates are unsolidified material and include marl, mud, mud/sand, sand or shell.

Pathway 3.1A
Community 3.1 to 3.2

This transition is driven by acid sulfate dynamics which causes a shift from a ghost forest to an area of unconsolidated substrates. This often occurs after a disturbance event creates an open area within a mangrove forest, allowing for the waterlogged soils under the forest to become exposed to air long enough for the soil to oxidize, forming sulfuric acid (pH <4.5). This will significantly alter the composition of the soil matrix and result in a highly acidic environment in which vegetation is unable to grow.

State 4
Invaded / Non-Native / Undesirable State

This state represents the dominance of one or multiple non-native or exotic species which outcompetes the native natural community and may significantly alter the composition and structure of the invaded stand by overshading the canopy and understory components and preventing regeneration of forest species.

Community 4.1
Brazilian peppertree - Carrotwood - Seaside Mahoe - Latherleaf - Australian Pine

This phase describes the introduction and establishment of invasive species common to this ecological site; Brazilian peppertree (Schinus terebinthifolia), carrotwood (Cupaniopsis anacardioides), seaside mahoe (Thespesia populnea), and Australian Pine (Casuarina equisetifolia). These are saline tolerant shrubs and trees that will outcompete native plants of this ecological site by having characteristics such as higher growth rates, high seed production, continuous growth, resprouting after damage, tolerance of a wide range of growing conditions, and even producing allelopathic compounds to inhibit native species growth.

Resilience management. Restoring native habitat may be very difficult with these species. Specific management plans may be required to identify and manage these species. It is strongly advised that consultation with State Resource Conservationist and District Conservationists at local NRCS Service Centers be sought when assistance is needed in developing management recommendations or invasive control practices.

State 5
Human Altered / Human Transported Soils Materials

These areas include soils that were intentionally and substantially modified by humans for an intended purpose, commonly for building support, transportation, and commerce. The alteration is of sufficient magnitude to result in the introduction of a new parent material (human-transported material) or a profound change in the previously existing parent material (human-altered material). They do not include soils modified or farmed with unintended wind and water erosion. When a soil is on or above an anthropogenic landform or microfeature, it can be definitely be associated with human activity and is assigned to a unique taxon, usually found as an "Urban land complex" within that communities' natural soil properties (e.g, Wulfert muck, tidal-Urban land complex, 0 to 1 percent slopes).

Characteristics and indicators. Evidence of these areas include soils with manufactured items (e.g. artifacts) present in the profile, human altered-materials (e.g., deeply excavated soil) or human-transported material (e.g., fill), and position on or above anthropogenic landforms (e.g., flood-control levees) and microfeatures (e.g., drainage ditches). Detailed criteria regarding the identification of anthropogenic (artificial) landforms, human-altered materials, and human-transported material are in the "Keys to Soil Taxonomy" (Soil Survey Staff, 2014).

Community 5.1
Developed Shorelines

This community consists of developed mangrove forests and herbaceous wetlands designed for human use. These urban areas include a variety of land uses, e.g., inner city or urban core, industrial and residential areas, parks, marinas, and other open spaces; the overall function which may benefit the quality of human life. These often form an urban soil mosaic, where the natural landscape has been fragmented into parcels with distinctive disturbance and management regimes and, as a result, distinctive characteristic soil properties.

Resilience management. Within this community there are three different levels of urbanization, based off population dynamics, residential density, and intensity of development. These are labeled as low-intensity, medium-intensity, and high-intensity urban areas. Low-intensity urban areas may consist of single dwelling homes with little impact on the surrounding community which still somewhat represents the natural community (e.g., represents natural landscape, hydroperiods, and vegetation), other examples of this are urban parks, cemeteries, or campgrounds with little urban development. Medium-intensity urban areas consist of larger urban dwellings with some natural features but have been modified to meet urban needs (e.g., towns). High-intensity urban areas are areas of heavily modified areas with complete alterations of the natural landscape, hydroperiods, and vegetation to support a very large population, which once constructed is permanently altered (e.g., metropolis areas/ active mines).

State 6
Altered Hydroperiod: Permanently Flooded

This state describes the impact of increased hydroperiods from anthropogenic or natural causes that creates an altered hydrologic state resulting in permanent flooding. The impact of this causes destruction of the intertidal community and may in time shift to a subaqueous community.

Transition T1A
State 1 to 3

This transition is driven by a large scale disturbance event which may shift the woody forest to either a ghost forest of standing dead wood or an area of unconsolidated substrates. A relatively low energy disturbance event, such as sea-level rise or creation of artificial impoundments, may extend the hydroperiod and will permanently saturate the root system and become too saline for the species tolerance. As this occurs, remaining mangrove species may encroach further inland, often at the expense of other ecological communities. Whereas a relatively high energy disturbance event, such as a hurricane or tropical storm, a freeze event, mosquito ditching, herbicides, etc. the naturalized communities may be destroyed, creating an area of unconsolidated substrates which will remain in an unvegetated state until a seedbank (either woody species or herbaceous species) becomes established and propagates. This transition may be a rapid shift from a woody forest to unconsolidated species to a herbaceous wetland or vice versa, dependent on the seedbank present and disturbance intensity to the sediment.

Transition T1B
State 1 to 4

This transition represents proliferation and dominance of an invasive species. Soil mechanical disturbances can compound this effect and create suitable conditions for invasive species.

Transition T1C
State 1 to 5

This transition is driven by the alteration and/ or transportation of soil materials via anthropogenic means. In these sites, it is often done to provide shoreline protection by replacing the native communities with a seawall or other shoreline protection strategies (Riprap, jetties, seawalls, etc.) to protect inland infrastructure.

Transition T2A
State 2 to 1

This transition is driven by mangrove encroachment into a herbaceous wetland, replacing the dense understory of grasses with a mangrove forest. Salt marsh vegetation cannot grow in the shade of mangrove trees and will often degrade and become replaced. This is considered a transition rather than a restoration pathway as mangrove forests and herbaceous wetlands are two naturalized states, with unmeasurable slight variations in hydrologic regimes, elevation, and soil salinity being the main drivers for compositional and structural changes. An encroaching mangrove forest is often the result of and change in shoreline elevation, with the seaward edge of a mangrove forest slowly succumbing to an open water habitat while the landward edge migrates inland, at the expense of a herbaceous wetland. Absence of freeze events may also allow for the encroachment of mangroves into salt marsh habitats.

Transition T2B
State 2 to 3

This transition is driven by a large scale disturbance event which may shift the herbaceous wetland into an area of unconsolidated substrates. A relatively low energy disturbance event, such as sea-level rise or creation of artificial impoundments, may extend the hydroperiod and will permanently saturate the root system and become too saline for the species tolerance. As this occurs, remaining mangrove species may encroach further inland, often at the expense of other ecological communities. Whereas a relatively high-energy disturbance event, such as a hurricane or tropical storm, may deposit sediment that, once exposed to air, undergoes rapid acid sulfate dynamics, lowering the pH. This may create an area of unconsolidated substrates which will remain in an unvegetated state until the systems pH is stabilized and a seedbank (either woody species or herbaceous species) becomes established and propagates.

Transition T2C
State 2 to 4

This transition represents proliferation and dominance of an invasive species. Soil mechanical disturbances can compound this effect and create suitable conditions for invasive species.

Transition T2D
State 2 to 5

This transition is driven by the alteration and/ or transportation of soil materials via anthropogenic means. In these sites, it is often done to provide shoreline protection by replacing the native communities with a seawall or other shoreline protection strategies (Riprap, jetties, seawalls, etc.) to protect inland infrastructure.

Transition T2E
State 2 to 6

This is driven by increased hydroperiods, both anthropogenic and natural, which causes long term flooding permanently altering the site.

Restoration pathway R3A
State 3 to 1

This restoration is driven by remediation techniques to restore hydrologic flow of the area, which will reduce the volume of acidic water by diluting it with a larger volume of neutral water. This is often done naturally as a system recovers from a high energy natural disturbance event such as a hurricane or tropical storm or freeze event, or may be done anthropogenically from a man-made disturbance event such as filling in mosquito ditches. Natural recovery is often seen due to the high tidal buffering potential of a natural supply of alkaline agents (bicarbonates/ carbonates) and daily tides. Once the unconsolidated substrate recovers from a low pH to an acceptable level for vegetative growth, a seedbank of either herbaceous or woody species must be present to restore the natural community. If a seedbank is absent, recovery efforts such as replanting seedlings (mangrove propagules) can be done by local, state, federal, and/ or private entities.

Restoration pathway R3B
State 3 to 2

This restoration is driven by remediation techniques to restore hydrologic flow of the area, which will reduce the volume of acidic water by diluting it with a larger volume of neutral water. This is often done naturally as a system recovers from a high energy natural disturbance event such as a hurricane or tropical storm or freeze event, or may be done anthropogenically from a man-made disturbance event such as filling in mosquito ditches. Natural recovery is often seen due to the high tidal buffering potential of a natural supply of alkaline agents (bicarbonates/ carbonates) and daily tides. Once the unconsolidated substrate recovers from a low pH to an acceptable level for vegetative growth, a seedbank of either herbaceous or woody species must be present to restore the natural community. If a seedbank is absent, recovery efforts such as replanting seedlings (salt marsh grass "plugs") can be done by local, state, federal, and/ or private entities.

Transition T3A
State 3 to 6

This is driven by increased hydroperiods, both anthropogenic and natural, which causes long term flooding and permanently altering the state.

Restoration pathway R4A
State 4 to 1

The establishment of, or a return to, natural habitat conditions following a previous invasive / non-native / undesirable species infestation may be possible in some areas. Successful actions will require relentless efforts that include removal of the species via chemical, mechanical, or biological means. In some extreme cases, restoration attempts could result in greater erosion and worsening of local conditions. Please consult with District and Soil Conservationists at local NRCS Field Offices for advice and guidance on land restoration attempts on invaded areas.

Restoration pathway R4B
State 4 to 2

The establishment of, or a return to, natural habitat conditions following a previous invasive / non-native / undesirable species infestation may be possible in some areas. Successful actions will require relentless efforts that include removal of the species via chemical, mechanical, or biological means. In some extreme cases, restoration attempts could result in greater erosion and worsening of local conditions. Please consult with District and Soil Conservationists at local NRCS Field Offices for advice and guidance on land restoration attempts on invaded areas.

Restoration pathway R5A
State 5 to 1

This restoration involves removing a man-made shoreline structures used for shoreline protection or other anthropogenic activities and restoring the native ecological community. Anthropogenic infrastructure must be completely removed and mineral soil materials representative of the natural communities must be replaced as well as planting mangrove propagules or salt marsh plugs. In low to moderated wave energy areas with gradual slopes, native plants can stabilize the shoreline with their roots. Faunal communities such as oyster reefs may be used at the base of the plant slope to provide a wave break, water filtration, and habitat for aquatic species. In sites with relatively steep slopes, the steepness may be broken or interrupted by installing terraces containing native plants, designed to prevent soil erosion and collect runoff. A hybrid of these restoration efforts may be used and should be depend on local conditions. Please consult your local NRCS office for more information regarding these practices.

Restoration pathway R5B
State 5 to 2

This restoration involves removing a man-made shoreline structures used for shoreline protection or other anthropogenic activities and restoring the native ecological community. Anthropogenic infrastructure must be completely removed and mineral soil materials representative of the natural communities must be replaced as well as planting mangrove propagules or salt marsh plugs. In low to moderated wave energy areas with gradual slopes, native plants can stabilize the shoreline with their roots. Faunal communities such as oyster reefs may be used at the base of the plant slope to provide a wave break, water filtration, and habitat for aquatic species. In sites with relatively steep slopes, the steepness may be broken or interrupted by installing terraces containing native plants, designed to prevent soil erosion and collect runoff. A hybrid of these restoration efforts may be used and should be depend on local conditions. Please consult your local NRCS office for more information regarding these practices.